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How to plan and perform a qualitative study using content analysis, The…
How to plan and perform a qualitative study using content analysis
It is essential to begin by clarifying what the
researcher wants to find out, from whom and how
he purpose
may be of a descriptive or exploratory nature based on inductive or
deductive reasoning.
The purpose may be of a descriptive or exploratory nature based on
inductive or deductive reasoning
he purpose
may be of a descriptive or exploratory nature based on inductive or
deductive reasoning.
It is important to identify
an interesting and unexplored dilemma, and then present it in a
concise form.
If the aim of the investigation is too broad, the risk of touching upon too many aspects may preclude the researcher reaching the desired depth of the studied phenomenon
It is important to identify an interesting and unexplored dilemma, and then present it in a concise form.
There are no
established criteria
when using content analysis for the size of a unit of analysis, neither the number of informants or objects to study, nor the number of pages based on the informants׳ own written text or transcribed data.
The concept unit of analysis
refers to the sample, and the researcher has to determine whether the material is to be analyzed in its entirety or divided into smaller units.
The sample size
should be determined on the basis of informational needs so that the research question can be answered with sufficient confidence
As a
method
, content analysis is unique in that it has both a quantitative and a qualitative methodology, and it can be used in an inductive or a deductive way.
There are no specific conceptions of meaning, and the concepts used are universal. In quantitative content analysis, facts from the text are presented in the form of frequency expressed as a percentage or actual numbers of key categories
The purpose
is to organize and elicit meaning from the data collected and draw realistic conclusions
The choice of analysis method depends on how deep within the analysis the researcher attempts to reflect the informants׳ statements about a subject. In turn, this affects the number of informants needed and in the way in which data are to be collected
For example, open-ended, written questions cannot provide the same depth that an interview can provide, as the researcher has the opportunity to deepen the discussion with the informants.
However, the choice of data collection method affects the depth of the analysis.
Content analysis can be used on all types of written texts no matter where the material comes from.
Verbal and non-verbal interaction between informants and researchers shape the data collected, which in turn affects the results of the study.
Data collected by
interviews, focus groups or other discussions are often recorded by audio or video.
These recordings are usually transcribed into a written form, which is an interpretive process.
Four main stages have been identified:
the decontextualisation, the recontextualisation, the categorisation, and the compilation
There is no need to use different main stages for manifest and latent analysis since the stages of the analyzing process are mainly the same regardless of interpretation
The researcher must familiarize him or herself with the data, and he/she has to read through the transcribed text to obtain the sense of the whole, that is, to learn “
what is going on?
”, before it can be broken down into smaller meaning units.
Each identified meaning unit is labeled with
a code
, which should be understood in relation to the context. This procedure is recognized as the “open coding process” in the literature
The researcher should use a
coding list
, including explanations of the codes, to minimize a cognitive change during the process of analysis in order to secure reliability
There are also
computer-programs
which can be of help. Though their use is not imperative, they may facilitate the process. Although these programs do not analyze the data, they do speed up the process by, for example, locating codes and grouping data together in categories.
The original text is
re-read
alongside the final list of meaning units.
Colored pencils
are useful to distinguish each meaning unit in the original transcript.
After this process has been performed, unmarked text nearly always remains. The researcher must then consider whether or not the unmarked text should be included.
This process of condensation is often needed when data are based on
interviews
and when latent content analysis is to be carried out. To extract the sense of the data, the coded material can, as a suggestion, be divided into domains: broad groups based on different attentions of the study
The concept sub-theme
can be used in a latent analysis instead of the concept categories. Identified themes and categories should be internally homogeneous and externally heterogeneous, which means that no data should fall between two groups nor fit into more than one group
Before the researcher can begin to create
categories
, extended meaning units must be condensed. This entails that the number of words is reduced without losing content of the unit
In a manifest analysis,
the researcher works this way gradually through each identified category and through the themes in a latent analysis. In a manifest analysis, the researcher often uses the informants׳ words, and he/she remains aware of the need to refer back to the original text.
The researcher must then attempt to find
the essence of the studied phenomenon.
The researcher has the opportunity to reach a deeper understanding even if it is on a descriptive
One difference
between the various qualitative analyzing methods is how the researcher relates to the analyzing process itself and adapts to the results.
The planning
The aim
The sample and units of analysis
The choice of data collection method
The choice of analysis method
Data collection and analysis
The decontextualisation
The recontextualisation
The categorisation
The compilation