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Danielle Van Hout, CHAPTER 1: Biology: Exploring Life, Chapter 9 relates…

- - - - CONNECTION TO EVOLUTION
  - - - Life's molecular diversity is based on the properties of carbon
      - A few chemical groups are key to the functioning of biological molecules
      - Cells make large molecules from a limited set of small molcules
    - - Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates
      - Two monosaccharides are linked to form a disaccharide
      - Are we eating too much sugar?
      - Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units
    - - Fats are lipids that mostly energy-storage molecules
      - Scientific studies document the heath risks of trans fat
      - Phospholipids and steroids are important lipids with a variety of functions
      - Anabolic steroids pose health-risks
    - - Proteins have a wide range of functions and structures
      - Proteins are made from amino acids linked by peptide bonds
      - A proteins functional shape results from four levels on structure
    - - The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are information rich polymers of nucleotides
      - Lactose tolerance is a recent event in human evolution
    - - CHAPTER 5: The Working Cell
        
        Membrane Structure and Function
        
        Membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and protein with many functions
        
        The spontaneous formation of membranes was a critical step in the origin of life
        
        Passive transport is diffusion across a membrane with no energy investment
        
        Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a membrane
        
        Transport proteins can facilitate diffusion across membranes
        
        Water balance between cells and their surroundings is crucial to organisms
        
        Research on another membrane protein led to the discovery of aquaporins
        
        Exocytosis and endocytosis transport large molecules across membranes.
        
        Cells expand energy in active transport of a solute
        
        Energy and the Cell
        
        Cells transform energy and matter as they perform work
        
        Chemical reactions either release or store energy
        
        ATP drives cellular work by coupling exergonic and endergonic reactions.
        
        How Enzymes Function
        
        Enzymes speed up the cell's chemical reactions by lowering energy barriers
        
        A specific enzyme catalyzes each cellular reaction
        
        Enzymes inhibition can regulate enzyme activity in a cell
        
        Many drugs, pesticides, and poisons are enzyme inhibitors
        
        CHAPTER 6: How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy
        
        Cellular Respiration: Aerobic Harvesting of Energy
        
        Photosynthesis and cellular respiration provide energy for life
        
        Breathing supplies O2 for use in cellular respiration adn removes CO2
        
        Cellular respiration banks energy in ATP molecules
        
        The human body uses energy from ATP for all its activities
        
        Cells capture energy from elections "falling" from organic fuels to oxygen
        
        Stages of Cellular Respiration
        
        Cellular respiration occurs in three main stages
        
        Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate
        
        After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic molecules
        
        Most ATP production occurs by oxidative phosphorylation
        
        Scientists have discovered heat-producing, calorie-burning brown fat in adults.
        
        Each molecule of glucose yields many molecules of ATP
        
        Fermentation: Anaerobic Harvesting of Energy
        
        Fermentation enables cells to produce ATP without oxygen
        
        Glycolysis evolved early in the history of life on Earth
        
        Connections Between Metabolic Pathways
        
        Cells use many kinds of organic molecules as fuel for cellular respiration
        
        Organic molecules from food provide raw materials for biosynthesis
        
        CHAPTER 7: Photosynthesis: Using Light to Make Food
        
        An Introduction to Photosynthesis
        
        Photosynthesis fuels the biosphere
        
        Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts in plant cells
        
        Scientists traced the process of photosynthesis using isotopes
        
        Photosynthesis is a redox process, as is cellular respiration
        
        Photosynthesis occurs in two stages, which are linked by ATP nad NADPH
        
        The Calvin Cycle: Reducing CO2 to Sugar
        
        ATP and NADPH power sugar synthesis in the Calvin Cycle
        
        Other methods of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, dry climates
        
        CONNECTION TO CHAPTER 3: The calvin cycle uses an enzyme called Rubisco which is an essential enzyme that is involved in carbon fixation
        
        The Light Reactions: Converting Solar Energy into Chemical Energy
        
        Visible radiation absorbed by pigments drives the light reactions
        
        Photosystems capture solar energy
        
        Two photosystems connected by an electron transport chain convert light energy to the chemical energy of ATP ann NADPH
        
        The light reactions take place within the thylakoid membranes
        
        The Global Significance of Photosynthesis
        
        Photosynthesis provides food and O2 or almost all living organisms
        
        Rising atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide may affect plants in many ways.
        
        Reducing both fossil fuel use and deforestation may moderate climate change
        
        CHAPTER 8: The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance
        
        Cell Division and Reproduction
        
        Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of organisms
        
        Prokaryotes reproduce binary fission
        
        Meiosis and Crossing Over
        
        Chromosomes are mached in homologous
        
        Gametes have a single set of chromosomes
        
        Meiosis reduces the chromosomes number from diploid to haploid
        
        Mitosis and Meiosis have important similarities and differences
        
        Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis have important similarities and differences
        
        Homologous chromosomes may carry different versions of genes
        
        Crossing over further increases genetic variation
        
        Alterations of Chromsome Number and Structure
        
        Accidents during meiosis can alter chromosome number
        
        A karyotype is a photographic inventory of an individual's chromosomes
        
        An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes down syndrome
        
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        New species can arise from errors in cell division
        
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        The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Mitosis
        
        The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division
        
        The cell cycle includes growth and division phases
        
        Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes
        
        Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells
        
        The rate of cell division is affected by environmental factors
        
        Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system
        
        Growing out of control, cancer cells product malignant tumors
        
        The best cancer treatment may vary by individual
        
        CHAPTER 9: Patterns of inheritance
        
        Variations on Mendel's Laws
        
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        The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
        
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        Mendel's Laws
        
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        Sex Chromosomes and Sex-Linked Genes
        
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        CHAPTER 10: Molecular Biology of a Gene
        
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        CONNECTION TO CHAPTER 4: Many single celled organisms, such as prokaryotes or the eukaryotic yeast cell reproduce by dividing in half, and the offspring are genetic replicas. (which relates to binary fission)
        
        CONNECTION TO CHAPTER 4: During mitosis and meiosis in order to see prophase a light microscope is needed to clearly see the changes that are occurring within the cell
      - Introduction to the Cell
        
        Mircroscopes reveal the world of the cell
        
        The Small size of cells relates to the need to exchange materials across the plasma membrane
        
        Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler than eukaryotic cells
        
        Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into functional compartments.
      - The Nucleus and Ribosomes
        
        The nucleus contains the cell's genetic instructions
        
        Ribosomes make proteins for use in the cell and for export
      - The Endomembrane System
        
        Many organelles are connected in the endomembrane system
        
        The endoplasmic reticulum is biosynthetic workshop
        
        The golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and ships cell products
        
        Lysosomes are digestive compartments within a cell
        
        Vacuoles function in the general maintenance of the cell
        
        A review of structures involved in manufacturing and breakdown
      - Energy-Converting Organelles
        
        Mitochondria harvest chemical energy from food
        
        Chloroplasts convert solar energy to chemical energy
        
        Mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved by endosymbiosis
      - The Cytoskeleton and Cell Surfaces
        
        The cell's internal skeleton helps organize its structure and activities
        
        Scientists discovered the cytoskeleton by using the tools of biochemistry and microscopy
        
        Cilia and flagella move when microtubules bend
        
        The extracellular matrix of animal cell functions in support and regulation
        
        Three types of cell junctions are found in animal tissues
        
        Cell wall enclose and support plant cells
        
        Eukaryotic cell structures can be grouped on the basis of four main functions