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Week 8 Libya and Yemen: A responsibility to protect whom? - Coggle Diagram
Week 8
Libya and Yemen: A responsibility to protect whom?
Responsibility to Protect
legitimate use of force
morality and ethics
just war theory
sovereignty
duties and right
orientalism
neo-colonialism
Pre-cursor Humanitarian Intervention (HI)
Rwanda 1994
Srebrenica 1995
Kosovo 1999
there is not conflict between states but perhaps governmental forces and internal groups and non governmental organisations or internal militias
asymmetrical war fare and is rooted in identity not ethnicity or religion
asymmetrical war fare = not state on state action but between gov forces and non gov forces, groups etc - the power is not necessarily the same between the parties involved in the conflict thus asymmetrical
rise in awareness for humanitarian conflicts such as Rwanda, Srebrenica and Kosovo
rise of humanitarian intervention
R2P
transition from humanitarian intervention to R2P
Problems with Humanitarian intervention because it breaches the sovereignty of the state
arguments of neo-colonialism
arguments as we will see of regime change - self interest - realism
When is it OK to intervene?
morality comes into play
the rise of moral politics and the just war thesis
duties and rights to help actors
for states to go to war there must be a just cause
morality and ethical framework of whom??
R2P was a way of responding to criticisms and questions
The emergence of R2P
R2P report by the international commission on the intervention and state sovereignty (ICISS) 2001
UN endorsed the concept of R2P at the world summit 2005
Chomsky 2016 - 2 versions of R2P:
2005 maintains international norms and laws of sovereignty state through UN rules
2001 where the UNSC has not acted to protect the right of peoples, organisations of states within the region of their own responsibility may enforce R2P with UN backing later...But who can act in this way? Chomsky argues only NATO has the capacity
R2P
The 3 Pillars of R2P
Pillar 1
every state has the responsibility to protect its populations from 4 mass atrocity crimes: genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and ethnic cleansing
Pillar 2
the wider international community has the responsibility to encourage and assist individual states in meeting that responsibility
Pillar 3
if a state is manifestly failing to protect its populations, the international community must be prepared to take appropriate collective action, in a timely and decisive manner and in accordance with the UN charter
Criticisms of Humanitarian Intervention and R2P
Ban on use of force necessary for lasting peace
fears of liberal imperialism and other abuses-a way of neocolonialism for states to get involved
R2P a rights-based teleological argument in different clothes - nothing different with R2P it is the same as humanitarian intervention
Humanitarian intervention and right of self determination
realist disagreement that HI does not align itself with traditional power politics of how states intervene
Concluding thoughts and questions
is R2P a form of neo-colonialism for Western powers to maintain control?
is intervention causing further conflict as issues are not being solved 'absolutely'?
is morality and ethics universal? are they a valid basis in which to undertake international relations? Whose responsibility should that be, regional or global?
Libya: The first use of Military Intervention under R2P
Gaddafi's Response
inflammatory speech from 22nd Feb 2011
he states that all protesters were 'drugged' and called on people to capture them and bring them 'to justice' and not to back down from 'cleansing Libya house by house' unless of the protesters surrendered
he blamed the uprising on Islamists who wanted to 'create another Afghanistan' and warned that those in Bayda and Derna had already set up an Islamic Emirate that would reach Benghazi (2nd largest city)
he called his people 'cockroaches'
The Arab uprisings and Libya
uprisings in Libya starting in Jan 2011 over corruption, human rights violations, high unemployment and poverty despite oil earnings
huge enthusiasm - right after Ben Ali's departure from Tunisia, and Hosni Mubarak's ousting from Egypt; the 'Arab Spring' momentum seemed undefeatable
yet, Gaddafi did not hesitate to deploy strong military forces against demonstrators straight away (unlike Tunisia, Egypt) leading to regional and international protests
brutality and human rights violations in Gaddafi's responses:
mass rape allegations
direct shootings of protesters
use of land mines
allegations of using sub-Saharan mercenaries to attack protesters
International Relationships
tense relations with international community until in 2003 Gaddafi hands over Lockerbie suspects and makes compensation payments
similarly in a bid to ease tensions, Gaddafi admits to WMD programme
Domestic and regional outlook
gradually, the development of an erratic foreign policy, driven by the erratic decisions of an inexperienced dictator
for many, Gaddafi a complete 'lunatic'
yet, similarities with Assad ('cult of personality') "mad dog"
domestically, a highly-repressive state apparatus
regionally, a radical policy that maintained the need to destroy Israel; to support the Palestinian struggle; and to punish Egypt for its pro-Western and pro-Israeli position (akin to Assad's Syria)
internationally, Libya faced sanctions as a 'state sponser of terrorism' by the US for decades (as was Assad's Syria and Saddam's Iraq)
The international relations of the Libyan uprising
Libya unique because of 2 violations of core Arab politics norms:
Arab states push for intervention in Libya, against state sovereignty norm
Many Arab states had enough of Gaddafi and sought to replace him
Qatar seeks a regional role, particularly via the use of al-Jazeera and its support of Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings
Access to Libyan oil a major factors in the decision to remove Gaddafi
Arab states support international/Western intervention in Libya
unfortunately, external states' competition in supporting different rebel proxies in Libya would lead to the failure of the country's post-2011 political transition (as in Syria)
International Response
UNSCR 1970, Feb 26th, unanimously adopted
series of sanctions, arms embargo and referral to ICC
Cameron later floats the idea of a no fly zone
12 March 2011, Arab countries ask UN to request no fly zone
Gaddafi declares that his forces would 'cleanse the city of Benghazi...We will track them down and search for them, alley by alley, road by road'
March 17th 2011, Resolution 1973
Declaration of genocidal intents, UN Res 1973 authorising 'all necessary means' for protection of Libyan civilian
UN security council (UNSC) demands immediate cease fire and an end to attacks on civilians
19 March 2011: NATO bombing begins, rise of the 'National Transitional Coucil'
20 October 2011: Gaddafi is captured and killed
Different Views
was the intervention in Libya the 'coming of age' of R2P as Ban, Thakur and Bellamy claim?
or has it dealt a fatal blow to an already fragile consensus around R2P? (Morris)
The consequences of R2P
Intense competition between Qatar and UAE on who would control Libya
Russia approved NATO bombings, but not regime change, hardens its position on an international intervention in Syria
Absence of external stabilisation or peace keeping forces in post Gaddafi Libya
Ultimately:
collapse into further civil strife; proliferation of weapons; lawlessness; Islamic insurgencies
A humanitarian/refugee crisis from sub-Saharan Africa through Libya to Europe
competing rival factions vying for political power and oil
Spill over into Tunisia; African states
But, a NATO success
More questions than answers
Was the intervention a moral case?
Gaddafi about to commit mass killings
Or was it simply a facade for strategic interests?
selective use of R2P, given Libya's strategic oil reserves
Aim was
humanitarian intervention or regime change?
Was use of force the last resort?
Why was the reconciliation process initiated by the African Union derailed by 'Western' push for the removal of Gaddafi?
Oppressive action domestically
his own family became disproportionally wealthy
in spite of what he says in his book dissident voices were not allowed
daily study of the green book by students and pupils
ordered the murder of dissidents in exile
developed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs)
financed terrorist organisations
e.g. Possibly ordered destruction of Pan Am Flight 103 (Frankfurt - Detroit via Heathrow)
Progressive Action Domestically
nationalisation of the oil industry
leading to higher standards of living
better life expectancy
better infrastructure
equal pay for equal work (gender equality)
no child marriages
high levels of literacy
Political Ideology
Green book published in the last 1970s
3rd international or universal theory (as opposed to communism or capitalism)
Laid out G's political philosophy on how to achieve direct democracy through the formation of people's committees
In 1977, Gaddafi proclaimed the Libyan 'Jamahiriya' - a neologism meaning roughly state of the masses
In practice all of government remained under his rule
Libya under colonel Gaddafi
influenced by Egypt's Nasser, the Libyan 'free officers movement' seizes power in 1969, under Muammar Gaddafi
the role of army in Middle East politics (Egypt, Tunisia, Turkey etc)
as with other revolutionary Arab states, an initial emphasis on anti-Zionist, anti-colonialism and Arab unity
Key difference with Egypt: oil revenues
Gaddafi nationalises BP holdings in Libya in 1971, all foreign assets in 1973
created as a colonial state by Italy 1911 by merging Tripolitania, Fezzan and Cyrenaica
Strategic importance for Western colonial forces and oil
Italians encouraged to settled in colonial Libya, in order to create a greater Italy ('settler colonialism')
Defeated in WW2, Italy renounces all claims to Libya, 1951 independence as the Kingdom of Libya
Colonel Muhammed Gaddafi rules between 1969 and 2011
Yemen
Yemeni History
18th, 19th and early 20th century: Zaydi Inamate in the North and British Crown Colony Aden and Protectorates in the South
1962-67: Civil War in the North and de-colonisation struggle in the South, establishment of Yemen Arab Republic in the North and people's democratic republic of Yemen in the South by 1970
Yemeni State
population: 29, 161, 922 (world bank 2019)
territory: 27,970 sq km
Unitary State
Secession in the South, Civil War in the North
Popular Revolution and Power struggle between regime's strongmen
Islamist militant strongholds in Abyan
Coup in Sana'a and relocation of the capital to Aden
Key points of Yemen history
1990 collapse of Soviet Union and funding unification of North and South
1991 Yemen sides with Iraq in its war - becomes isolated by the region and Saudi Arabia begins tense relations
1994 civil war won by former North Yemen
2000 USS cole attacked by al-Qaeda in gulf of aden (secessionist movement in the south)
2004 beginning of Civil War in Sa'dah Province
2009 north west flight 253 targeted
2011 start of popular revolution and GCC deal
2014 national dialogue conference - 'all citizens shall be equal in rights and duties before the law, without distinction based on sex, race, origin, colour, religion, sect, doctrine, opinion, or economic or social standing'
2014-15 renewed Houthi rebellion and ousting of Yemeni PM Hadi from Sana'a in a coup
Key points of Yemen history
2015 Houthi rebels take over Sanaa, Hadi gov relocates to Aden and is supported by Saudi led coalition
2017 cracks in the South - Hadi sacks Aden govenor al-Zubaidi who historically favour southern secession
Al-Zubaidi establishes parallel authority - Southern Transitional Council (STC)
2018 Clashes - separatist forces seize nearly all of Aden, security belt forces supported by UAE, coalition mediation takes place
2019 clashes between security belt forces and pro-government forces , Hadi gov accuses UAE of backing a coup, continuing back and fro between UAE supported separatists and Saudi supported Hadi gov
2020 April 26th STC declares self-rule for the south
Yemeni Government
Executive:
elected president: Abdo Rabbo Mansour Hadi
appointed prime minister: Maeen Abdulmalik Saeed 2018
Bicameral Legislature:
elected: house of representatives (301 members for 8 years)
appointed: Shura Council (111 members)
independent judiciary
Shadow Government (1): The Tribal System
Tribe-Qabilah: economic, political and social groups that interact within certain territories usually subordinate to some kind of state. Traditionally responsible for defence and keeping the peace
Tribal system not homogenous throughout Yemen. Northern tribes stronger and more independent than Southern ones
Tribes of North Yemen heavily armed political leaders involved in state politics
for tribes the state does not represent the Yemeni nation, an understanding strengthened by inability of state to reach tribal areas
Shadow Government (2): The Patronage Networks
power and wealth in Yemen transmitted through informed and fluid but deeply entrenched web of tribally and regionally based patronage. Web includes tribal elites, regional leaders, merchants and technbocrats
Basis: Saleh's family (control of Army, state and GCP), his knowledge of Yemen's tribal system and Saudi money
system based on elite's short term ability to create problems or find solutions for Saleh and family
revolution co-opted by strongmen within elites to challenge Saleh and family's primacy in patronage networks
Houthi's power grab can be seen in part as another attempt to control patronage networks. This is evident from youth's protests and arguments against the Houthi government
other than the local elites, the GCC and especially Saudi Arabia and Iran have vested interested in controlling Yemen's patronage network from afar
Yemeni Political Culture
political fragmentation: tribal system, North/South divide, Sa'dah Conflict, revolution
elite corruption institutionalised by patronage
awakening of youth and women in revolution and re-energising of grassroots movements of 1970s and 1990s
Spark of change
Conflict with Houthi's from 2004
driven by economic and political motivations
The revolution of Feb 2011
Regional and international involvement
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, Bahrain, Egypt, Morocco, Jordan, Sudan, Senegal
USA against ISIL
USA, UK and France supply SA with arms and intelligence
Iran support of Houthi rebels
Humanitarian Crisis
the UN Security Council (UNSC) - mandated Panel of Experts on Yemen has documented widespread violations of international Humanitarian Law (IHL) and international Human Rights Law (IHRL) by all parties to the conflict
at least 24.1 million Yemenis are in need of humanitarian assistance
a renewed epidemic of cholera has resulted in more than 1 million suspected cases reported since Jan 2018. Essential vaccines have reportedly been blocked by parties to the conflict
the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), estimates that more than 3 million Yemenis have fled their homes to elsewhere in the country and 280,000 have sought asylum in other countries including Djibouti and Somalia
Humanitarian Crisis 2
7500 cases of the killing and maiming of Yemeni children, almost half of which were caused by coalition airstrikes, as well as the recruitment or use of more than 3000 children by parties to the conflict
Nov 2018 Save the Children reported that 85,000 children under 5 may have died due to starvation since April 2015
Gov failure to provide basic services
intermittent electricity, water and sewage services
severe threat of Covid-19
Yemen is now the poorest country in the Middle East
What has been done?
the UNSC imposed sanctions on former President Ali Abdullah Saleh and Houthi le
On 14th April 2015 the UNSC established an arms embargo against Houthi leaders and some supporters of Saleh and demanded the Houthis withdraw from all areas they had military seized
21 DEC 2018 Stockholm agreement and authorizing the deployment of a monitoring team to oversee its implementation
16th Jan the UNSC adopted Resolution 2452, establishing the UN Mission to support the Hodeidah Agreement - protection of ports
26th Feb 2019 the UNSC renewed sanctions and extended the mandate of the panel of experts until 28 March 2020. Aders in Nov 2014