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Social & Behavioral Socialization Outcomes - Coggle Diagram
Social & Behavioral Socialization Outcomes
Self-regulation
Temperament
Easy children:
more likely to comply with adults
Slow-to-warm up:
Need time, reasoning, repetition, & patience
Difficult children:
resistant to change
Factors in development
Biological factors:
temperament, genes, etc...
Contextual factors
: parenting & teaching strategies
Developmental requirements
cognitive maturity to understand autonomy
language development to understand directives
memory capabilities to store & retrieve instructions
information processing
concept of future
Anti-Social Behavior / Aggression
Biological theories
Evolution
Life instinct (Eros):
causes growth & survival
Death Instinct (Thanatos):
self-destruction - redirected outward = aggression
Genetics
impulse control
frustration tolerance
activity level
hormone levels
Neuroscience
Specific genes & chemical reactions in the brain
Dysfunctional serotonin regulation: affects mood & impulsiveness
Social-Cognitive theories
Learning theory
reinforced behavior is repeated; ignored or punished behavior will cease
consequences of own actions
observed consequences of others
role models
peers
parents
media
Information Processing theory
Impulsivity
Frustration
Sociocultural theories
Peers
group pressure
Opportunities for delinquent acts
Community
Social contagion:
gangs, rioters, mobs, etc...
Unsafe neighborhoods:
foster "proactive" aggression
Restraining socialization:
laws, police, etc...
Collectivists:
more likely to avenge others' shame
How to inhibit aggressiveness in children
Organize environment to minimize conflicts
Set standards, stick to them, provide consequences
Stop aggression immediately
Provide alternative ways to solve problems
Anticipate potential aggressive situations
Foster helpfulness & cooperation
Provide opportunities for cooperative activities
Be a positive role model
Discuss rules & reasons for them
Reward prosocial behavior
Mediators that contribute to antisocial behavior
Harsh parental discipline
Lack of maternal warmth
Aggressive adult role models
Maternal aggressive values
Family life stressors
Mother's lack of social support
Peer group instability
Lack of cognitive stimulation
Ecological theories - Variables contribution to Antisocial behavior
Child
Biological
: evolution, genetics
gender
hormones
temperament:
impulsivity, frustration tolerance, activity level
ability to delay gratification
information processing ability
Conscience:
internal (guilt) vs. external (fear of punishment)
cognitive maturity
Social skills
moral reasoning / judgement
Family
parenting style
interaction
modeling
reinforcement / punishment for behavior
attitudes / values
School
teaching style
modeling
reinforcement / punishment for behavior
expectations
Peers
peer group pressure
situation
aggressive norms
modeling
acceptance / rejection
Media
modeling
reinforcement / punishment of model
mediation by adults
Community
modeling
acceptance of / sanctions for violence
degree of social cohesiveness
degree of safety
socioeconomic stressors
availability of support systems
Pro-Social Behavior / Altruism
Development by age
Toddlers (2-3):
become distressed by others' distress
Preschoolers (3-6):
altruistic acts which also benefit self
School age (6-12):
understand legitimate needs of others
Adolescents:
abstract social responsibility & guilt for not acting altruistically
Biological Theories
Freud
altruism = ability to regulate biological drives
Id = seeks self-gratification
Ego = rational part
Superego = conscience
Simpson & Beckes (2009) / Sober & Wilson (1998):
adaptive survival trait
influenced by evolution & genes
promotes genetic fitness of others at expense of ones' own & protects the species
Hoffman (1991):
Inherited biological predisposition
Hein & Singer (2009)
neuroscience
ventromedial area of cerebral cortex:
processes info about other's suffering & own misdeeds
brain produces dopamine during cooperative tasks
Social Cognitive Theories
Learning Theory
Direct reinforcement:
reward for altruistic act
Vicarious reinforcement:
observing others being reward for altruism
Concrete rewards ultimately undermine intrinsic motivation unless accompanied by explanations
Positive role-models:
adults, peers, media
Instruction
Learning by doing
role-play
real life experiences
virtual experiences
Cognitive Developmental Theories
Perspective-taking
Moral reasoning
Social Interactional Theories
Communication style
Bidirectional interactions
Mothers responses to aggressive behavior
Highly altruistic children
prohibition w/explanation
moralizing
Low altruism
neutral observation
physical restraint
physical punishment
withdrawal of love
Parenting Style
Authoritative
= prosocial tendencies
Authoritarian
= aggression, hostility, & resistance
Permissive
= no effect on prosocial behavior
Sociocultural Theories
Rural & semi-agricultural
= cooperative children
Modern urban:
less cooperative
children w/duties & responsibilities to family economic security
= high altruism
Fostering Prosocial Behavior
Set a good example
teach reasons for prosocial behavior
be warm & accepting
set firm standards of behavior
role-playing
discuss how actions affect others
provide opportunities for cooperative activities
suggest ways to be cooperative & helpful
provide meaningful responsibilities
praise prosocial behavior
Variables that Contribute to Prosocial Behavior
Child
genetics
temperament
age
cognitive maturity
perspective & role-taking ability
empathy
moral reasoning & judgement
situation
Family
parenting style
communication of prosocial / antisocial instructions
reinforcement / punishment
modeling
assignment of responsibility
role-playing
discussion
School
instruction, setting standards
positive / negative consequences
reinforcement / punishment
modeling
assignment of responsibility
role-playing
discussion
Peers
peer group pressure
learning by doing
collaborative activities
modeling
Media
mediated by adults
values of cooperation
modeling
Community
simple social organization
traditional, rual
extended family ties
early assignment of tasks & responsibilities
Individualistic vs. collectivistic
justice-based / duty-based social responsibility
Morals & Morality
Feeling
empathy
guilt
Reasoning
ability to understand rules
know right vs. wrong
perspective taking
Behaving
prosocial
antisocial
impulse regulation
Moral Development
Piaget's Theory
Ages 4-5
Rules poorly understood
rules not binding
Ages 6-9
rules made by an authority
rules sacred & unchangeable
"Morality of constraint"
Ages 10-13
rules regarded as law
rules emanate from mutual consent
must be respected to be part of the group
"Morality of cooperation"
can be changed with agreement by the majority
Heteronomous morality:
Rules are moral absolutes than cannot be changed
Autonomous morality:
Rules are arbitrary agreements which can be changed by those who have to follow them
Kholberg's Theory
Postconventional
Stage 5:
Social contract & individual rights
What is right
respecting that values & rules are relative to various peoples & groups
relative rules should be upheld for impartiality
some values & rights are non-relative (life & liberty)
Reason for doing right
sense of obligation to law
feeling of contractual commitment to family, friends, work, & trust
"greatest good for greatest number"
Social perspective
Awareness of values & rights independent of social attachments & legal contracts
Considers both moral & legal views
recognizes conflicts between moral & legal views
Stage 6:
Universal ethical principles
What is right
following self-chosen ethical principles
when laws violate one's principles, following the principles regardless
equality of human rights
respect for dignity of individuals
Reason for doing right
belief in the validity of universal moral principles
sense of personal commitment to moral principles
Social perspective
moral point of view
recognizing nature of morality
people are ends in themselves and must be treated as such
Conventional
Stage 3:
Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, & interpersonal conformity
What is right
living up to other's expectations
"being good" is important
trust, loyalty, respect, gratitude
Reason for doing right
be a good person
caring for others
Golden Rule
Maintain rules & authority: "good behavior"
Social perspective
Concrete Golden Rule
Relationships take precedence over self-interest
perspective-taking on individual level (not generalized system)
Stage 4:
Social system & conscience
What is right
fulfilling duties
laws should be upheld (except in extreme cases)
contributing to society, group, & institution
Reason for doing right
keep institution going as a whole
avoid "if everyone did it"
imperative of conscience
Social perspective
differentiates societal point of view from interpersonal agreement / motives
individual relations considered in terms of place in the system
takes point of view of the system that defines the roles & rules
Preconventional
Level 1:
Heteronomous morality
What is right
obedience for it's own sake
avoid physical damage to persons & property
avoid breaking rules
Reasons for doing right
avoid punishment
obey authority
Social perspective
egocentric
no consideration of others' viewpoints
actions considered physically rather than psychologically
Level 2
: Individualism, instrumental purpose, & exchange
What is right
following rules according to immediate best interest
acting to meet own needs
right is also fair
equal exchange, deals, agreements
Reasons for doing right
serve one's own needs & interests
recognize others have needs & interests too
Social perspective
concrete individualism
everyone has own interests
individuals' needs conflict
right is relative (in concrete, individualistic sense)
How the stages work
Same for all people regardless of culture
Individuals progress from stage to stage
Changing from stage to stage is gradual & brought about by social experience
Some people progress faster than others
Not everyone reaches every stage
role-taking experiences promote progress through stages
One's stage is not the only factor in one's moral behavior choices
Critiques of Kholberg's theory
Moral Reasoning & Moral Behavior:
link between them not as strong ad Kohlberg suggests
Interviewing Technique:
Self-reported
Defining Issues Test (DIT)
1. Personal-interest schema
(Kohlberg's stages 2 & 3)
2. Maintaining norms schema
(Kohlberg stage 4)
3. Postconventional schema
(Kohlberg stage 6)
Moral Judgement Test (MJT)
Cultural Bias:
Western, individualistic morality
Gender Bias:
all male
Influences on Moral Development
Situational Contexts
Judgement of the situation
Moral situation:
involves others' rights or welfare
Conventional situation:
rules for behavior in a social group
Age of child
Cultural Orientation
Collectivistic
universe = just & moral
judgements based on conventional norms of reciprocity
conflicts resolved through resolution
Individualistic
morality based on rationality
judgments based on individual choice & responsibility
conflicts resolved via laws that protect individual rights
Individual Contexts
Temperament
inhibited
impulsive
aggressive
Self-control
Need for approval from others - negatively correlated with moral behavior
Need for self-approval positively related to moral behavior
Self-esteem
Intelligence & Education
Social Interaction
Emotions
Understanding emotions of others
Feeling empathy for others
Feeling guilt
Influence in the Classroom
build a sense of community
allow children a voice in rules & consequences
give reasons for consequences
distinguish rules for justice & rules for order
collaborative group work
encourage considering the feelings of others (real or fictional)
role-play to encourage perspective-taking
discuss fairness vs. unfairness
discussions that promote higher-level reasoning
be a role model & call out good role models
Gender roles & Sex-typing
Gender:
psychological construct
Sex:
biological construct
Sex typing:
classification of gender roles based on biological sex
Theories of Gender Role Development
Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud):
How one comes to feel male or female
Oedipus complex:
boy loves mom & identifies w/dad
Electra complex:
girl loves dad & identifies w/mom
Social Cognitive Theory:
How one comes to behave male or female
Reinforcement / Punishment
for behaving in certain ways
Chosen
role models
of those perceived to be "like them"
Cognitive Developmental Theory:
How one comes to reason oneself as male or female
Understanding of roles through observation & interaction
Assimilation of roles according to biological sex
Gender Schema theory:
How one processes information about oneself as male or female
Schema: conceptual framework of one's experiences & understandings
Children code observations into male schema & female schema
Self-concept associated with self-perceived congruence with gender schema
Brain differences
Male
more aggressive
greater visual-spatial ability
greater connectivity WITHIN hemispheres
connection between perception & coordinated action
Female
greater verbal ability
superior memory & social cognitive skills
greater connectivity BETWEEN hemispheres
connection between analytical & intuitive processing
Socialization Influences on Gender-Role Development
Family
Toys
Boys: trucks, war toys, sports equipment
Girls: dolls, dollhouses, books
Fathers
More rough & tumble with sons
More cuddly with daughters
More influential on gender-role socialization
More physical play with both sexes
Socialization
Boys: allowed to take more risks, left unsupervised more
Boys: encouraged in gross motor activities
Girls: encouraged in fine motor activities
Girls: passive, feminine role-play
Peers
Social standing
Boys:
based on athletic ability & toughness
Girls:
based on appearance & social skills
Ridicule for stepping outside gender norms
Sex-segregated play groups
Boys
Larger group / team sports
Multiple roles
More interdependence
elaborate rules
less proximity to adults
more fighting & physical contact
Girls
smaller groups
role differentiation rarely
more cooperative
less interdependent
closer proximity to adults
turn-taking, mutuality
Community
Attitudes
stereotypical?
gendered occupations
language to describe genders
gender-role expectations
Gender role-models
Media
Screen media
character portrayals
advertising
sexualization of girls
Print media
gender stereotypes in children's literature
advertisements in magazines
Audio media
males:
sexually aggressive, irrational, adventuresome
females:
emotional, deceitful, frivolous, dependent
Interactive & Multimedia
Pervasive sexual content
Stereotypical video games
Female character portrayal
School
Sex-segregated activities
Gender roles in textbooks
Differing course requirements
Uneven sex distribution of staff
Treatment by teachers & staff
Boys
attention for achievement-related behaviors
negative attention for aggressive behaviors
socialized to be active, assertive learners
Girls
socialized to be quiet, passive learners
positive attention for proximity-seeking behaviors
attention for compliance