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Chapter 1: Exploring Life, Chapter 3: The Molecules of Life, Chapter 4: A…
Chapter 1: Exploring Life
The Scientific Study of Life
In life's hierarchy of organization, new properties emerge at each level
Emergent properties: new properties that arise with each step upward in the hierarchy of life, owing to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity
Five Unifying Themes in Biology
Theme: Life depends on the transfer and transformation of energy and matter
Photosynthesis transforms energy and matter
The Process of Science
Biology, technology, and society are connected in important ways
The discovery of the structure of DNA was aided by the technology of X-ray crystallography
The process of science is repetitive, nonlinear and collaborative
Hypotheses can be tested using controlled experiments
Chapter 3: The Molecules of Life
Introductions to Organic Compounds
A few chemical groups are key to the functioning of biological molecules
Each base of has a single or double ring consisting of nitrogen and carbon atoms with various functional groups attached
Lipids
Phospholipids and steroids are important lipids with a variety of functions
Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar
Plant walls consist of fibers of cellulose embedded in a matrix of other polysaccharides and proteins
Are we eating too much sugar?
Recent research has documented a correlation between increased sugar consumption and health problems such as cardiovascular disease and others
Proteins
Proteins have a wide range of functions and structures
Nucleic Acid
The nucleic acids DNA and RNa are information rich polymers of nucleotides
Chapter 4: A Tour of the Cell
Introduction to the Cell
The small size of cells relates to the need to exchange materials across the plasma membrane
The properties of the phospholipid bilayer and the proteins suspended in it relate to the plasma membrane's job to regulate the flow of material into and out of the cell
The Cytoskeleton and Cell Surfaces
Cell walls enclose and support plant cells
The Nucleus and Ribosomes
The nucleus contains the cell's genetic instructions
mRNA is a transcription of protein-synthesizing instructions written in a gene's DNA
The Endomembrane System
Structures involved in manufacturing and breakdown
Transport vesicle buds from the Golgi apparatus and moves to the edge of the cell, where it fuses with the plasma membrane
Energy-Converting Organelles
Cell walls enclose and support plant cells
Mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved by endosymbiosis
Mitochondria harvest chemical energy from food
Mitochondria uses O2 and releases CO2 in transforming the chemical energy of food to ATP
Chapter 7: Photosynthesis: Using Light to Make Food
An Introduction to Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis fuels the biosphere
Chloroplasts originated from a photosynthetic prokaryote that took up residence inside a eukaryotic cell
Scientists traced the process of photosynthesis using isotopes
The Light Reactions: Converting Solar Energy to Chemical Energy
Photosystems capture solar energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed , but it can be transferred or transformed
Two photosystems connected by an electron transport chain convert light energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH
The energy of the concentration gradient drives H+ across a membrane powers ATP synthesis
THe Global Significance of Photosynthesis
The Calvin Cycle: Reducing CO2 to Sugar
Chapter 9: Patterns of Inheritance
Mendel's Laws
Mendel's Laws: The study of Genetics has ancient roots
Genomics: The study of heredity. Modern genetics began with the work of Mendel in the 19th century
Homologous chromosomes bear the alleles for each character
Segregation of alleles
Many inherited traits in humans are controlled by a single gene
Inherited dominant or recessive traits controlled by a single gene
Many inherited traits in humans are controlled by a single gene
Variations of Mendel's Laws
Incomplete dominance results in intermediate phenotypes
The inherited disease familial hypercholesterolemia
The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
Chromosome behavior accounts for Mendel's Laws
Sex Chromosomes and Sex-Linked Genes
Chromosomes determine sex in many species
X inactivation and Barr Body
Chapter 10: Molecular Biology of the Gene
The Structure of the Genetic Material
DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides
Nucleotides: A building block of nucleic acids, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and one or more phosphate groups
DNA is a double-stranded helix
Chromosome theory of inheritance
DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides
DNA Replication
DNA replication depends on specific base pairing
Genes are passed along from one cell to the next during cell division and from one generation to the next during reproduction
The Flow of Genetic Information from DNA to RNA to Protein
Genes control phenotypic traits through the expression of proteins
Each step of the metabolic pathway is catalyzed by a specific enzyme
Eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving the nucleus as mRNA
The Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria
Many viruses cause disease in animals and plants
Once a virus enters a plant cell and begins replicating it can spread throughout the entire plant through plasmodesmata
Chapter 6: How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy
Cellular Respiration: Aerobic Harvesting of Energy
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration provide energy for life
Photosynthesis: the energy of sunlight is used to arrange the atoms of carbon dioxide
Cellular respiration banks energy in ATP molecules
Cellular respiration is an exergonic process where the chemical energy of the bonds in glucose is released and some is stored in ATP while the rest is released as heat
Stages of Cellular Respiration
Most ATP production occurs by oxidative phosphorylation
Cellular respiration occurs in three main stages
Scientists have discovered heat-producing, calorie-burning brown fat in adults
Connections Between Metabolic Pathways
Cells use many kinds of organic molecules s fuel for cellular respiration
Feedback Inhibitions: A method of metabolic control in which a product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway
Fermentation: Anaerobic Harvesting of Energy
Chapter 8: The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance
Cell Division and Reproduction
The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Mitosis
The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division
The DNA molecules of each chromosome is replicated and new protein molecules attach as needed to maintain the chromosomes structure and regulate its genes
Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system
A signal transduction pathway is a series of protein molecules that conveys a message
Mutations in genes that control cell division can lead to cancer
Alterations of Chromosomes Number and Structure
Alterations of chromosome structure can cause birth defects and cancers
Meiosis and Crossing Over
Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid
Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs
Chapter 12: DNA Technology and Genomics
Gene Cloning and Editing
Genetically Modified Organisms
DNA technology has changed the pharmaceutical industry and medicine
Diagnosing diseases: it is possible to identify symptomless carriers of these and other diseases caused by recessive alleles
DNA Profiling
Gel electrophoresis sorts DNA molecules by size
All nucleic acid molecules carry negative charges on their phosphate groups
THe PCR method is used to amplify DNA sequences
Scientists make used of the enzymes in bacteria in a technique that rapidly replicates DNA sequences from small samples
Geneomics and Bioinformatics
Genomics is the scientific study of whole gneomes
Genetics is the scientific study of whole genomes
Chapter 2: The Chemical Basis of Life
Elements, Atoms, and Compounds
Atoms consist of protons, neutrons and electrons
Isotopes: an element that has the same number of protons and behave identically in chemical reactions, but they have a different number of neutrons
Using a heavy isotope of oxygen, scientists were able to follow oxygen atoms during photosynthesis
Organisms are composed of elements, usually combined into compounds
Water's Life-Supporting Properties
Chemical Bonds
Covalent bonds join atoms into molecules through electron sharing
Water molecules are very small but because it is polar, its diffusion through a membrane"s hydrophobic interior is relatively slow
Hydrogen Bonds are weak bonds important in the chemistry of life
Hydrogen bonds help to create a DNA's shape
Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds
C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H20 + ATP + Heat
Chapter 5: The Working Cell
Energy and the Cell
ATP drives cellular work by coupling exergonic and endergonic reactions
All three phosphate groups are negatively charged.
Cells transform energy and matter as they perform work
First law of thermodynamics
How Enzymes Function
Enzyme Inhibition can regulate enzyme activity in a cell
Membrane Structure and Function
Transport proteins can facilitate diffusion across membranes
Exocytosis and endocytosis transport large molecules across membranes
Membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins with many functions
Chapter 11: How Genes Are Controlled
Control of Gene Expression
Signal transduction pathways convert messages received at the cell surface to responses within the cell
Chromosome structure and chemical modifications can affect gene expression
Chromatin: Proteins help maintain the chromosomes structure and control the activity of its genes. Consists of roughly equal amounts of DNA and protein
Eukaryotic RNA may be spliced in more than one way
RNA processing includes the addition of a cap and a tail, as well as the removal of any introns and the splicing together of the remaining exons
Researchers can monitor the expression of specific genes
It is possible to study the expression of large groups of genes
Proteins interacting with DNA turn prokaryotic genes on or off in response to environmental change
Cloning of Plants and Animals
The Genetic Basis of Cancer
Melissa Weythman
Bio&160
Dr Hoffman