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Unit 10 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - healthy is 18.5-24.9
      - overweight is 25-29.9
      - underweight is <18.5
      - obese is over 30
    - - SET POINT:a hypothesized mechanism that serves to maintain body weight around a physiologically programmed level
      - Similarities in body weight among family members are naturally influenced by what and how much they are eating. What children eat is largely based on what their parents provide and allow them to eat, and eating patterns developed in childhood are generally carried into adulthood
      - Food advertisements trigger eating—after watching a commercial for buttery microwave popcorn, you may have found yourself rummaging around in the kitchen in search of that last bag you hope is still there.
    - - The first step is to think critically about the weight-loss options that are out there.
        
        we need to find a way to effectively motivate people to change their behaviours
        
        . Given that stress leads to an increase in the number of calories consumed (see Module 11.1), reducing stress could lead to a reduction in the amount of food consumed
      - Maintain weight loss - there are several challenges with this
        
        First, obese individuals pay more attention to food cues (Polivy et al., 2008) and find them more rewarding than non-obese people
        
        Additionally, the drive to eat and the perceived value of food increase as more time passes since the last meal (Raynor & Epstein, 2003); this makes it difficult to remove snacks from your routine.
        
        The restraint involved in dieting—especially avoiding certain highly reinforcing foods—may actually make the foods even more reinforcing in the long run.
  - - - Poverty and Discrimination
        
        Health and wealth increase together. People who live in affluent communities not only enjoy better access to health care, but also have a greater sense of control over their environments and have the resources needed to maintain a lifestyle of their choosing.
        
        People who experience poverty, discrimination, and other social stressors have higher incidences of depression, anxiety, and other mental health problems.
        
        health problems are magnified by stress
      - Family and Social Environment
        
        SOCIAL RESILIENCE: the ability to keep positive relationships and to endure and recover from social isolation and life stressors, can protect individuals from negative health consequences of loneliness and social isolation
        
        Marriage is typically the primary social relationship that people establish, and it has been shown to have long-term health benefits. Married people tend to live longer and have better mental and physical health than do nonmarried adults. Married couples enjoy the benefits of social support and combined resources, and they tend to have better health habits.
        
        Unmarried women are 50% more likely to die from heart disease, several forms of cancer, cirrhosis of the liver, and other preventable diseases than are married women; this effect of marriage is even higher in men, with unmarried men being 250% more likely to die from these causes
        
        Of course, marriage can also be a considerable source of stress. Married couples who are experiencing ongoing problems with their relationship tend to experience more depression and greater incidences of physical illness than happily married couples
      - SOCIAL CONTAGION: the often subtle, unintentional spreading of a behaviour as a result of social interactions
        
        Families are not the only interpersonal influence on how we think and act. The social group(s) that we belong to can also have a large effect on our health-related behaviours. Social scientists have found that unhealthy behaviours such as smoking or having a poor diet spread throughout a person’s social group.
- - - - First, the individual perceives a potential threat and begins the primary appraisal by asking, “Is this a threat?”
        
        no
        
        do not experience stress
        
        yes
        
        they will experience a physiological stress reaction (perhaps a racing heart beat and sweaty palms) as well as an emotional reaction (perhaps anxiety and fear)
      - As these events unfold, the secondary appraisal begins—they must determine how to cope with the threat.
        
        During the secondary appraisal, they may determine that they know how to cope with the stressor (e.g., studying for the exams over the course of several days).
        
        In this case, they will not feel much stress. However, if they believe that the stressor goes beyond their ability to cope, the physiological and emotional reactions to the stress will continue.
  - - - ALARM consists of your recognition of the threat and the physiological reactions that accompany it, including increases in blood pressure, muscle tension, heart rate, and adrenaline release.
      - RESISTANCE is characterized by an individual using their physical and mental resources to respond to the stressor in an appropriate way (e.g., furiously studying for a quiz or running away from predators)
      - EXHAUSTION occurs when the stressful experience depletes your physical resources and your physiological stress response, and thus your ability to cope, declines.
    - - HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY-ADRENAL (HPA) AXIS: a neural and endocrine circuit that provides communication between the nervous system (the hypothalamus) and the endocrine system (pituitary and adrenal glands)
      - CORTISOL: a hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex (the outer part of the adrenal gland) that prepares the body to respond to stressful circumstances
    - - The tend-and-befriend reaction may be promoted by the release of OXYTOCIN: a stress-sensitive hormone that is typically associated with maternal bonding and social relationships
        
        Oxytocin influences a number of behaviours, including the contraction of the uterus when a woman is in labour, romantic attachment, social bonding, trust, wound healing, and orgasm (although not all at the same time)
  - - - Oxytocin has been shown to inhibit activity in the amygdala, a brain region involved with fear and threat responses (Radke et al., 2017). It may also prevent the release of cortisol (Heinrichs et al., 2003).
      - Vasopressin also has stress-reducing functions. Like oxytocin, the release of vasopressin is controlled by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, and affects the levels of stress hormones released by the adrenal gland (Goland et al., 1991). People with high vasopressin levels tend to report better relationship quality with their spouses (Walum et al., 2008).
  - - - TYPE A PERSONALITY: people who tend to be impatient and worry about time, and are easily angered, competitive, and highly motivated
      - TYPE B PERSONALITY: people who are more laid-back and characterized by a patient, easygoing, and relaxed disposition
    - - Although it is possible that these substances directly affect the hormones and brain areas associated with stress, most scientists agree that food (and drugs) influence the brain’s dopamine reward system
        
        Additionally, as discussed in Module 11.1, people who are stressed are mobilizing the body’s resources in case action is required; eating fatty and sugary foods provides the body with extra calories in anticipation of the person having to use additional energy to deal with a stressor.
- - - - Coping strategies can include problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping.
      - POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: uses scientific methods to study human strengths and potential
      - OPTIMISM: the tendency to have a favourable, constructive view on situations and to expect positive outcomes.
      - PESSIMISM: the tendency to have a negative perception of life and expect negative outcomes
        
        PESSIMISTIC EXPLANATORY STYLE: the tendency to interpret and explain negative events as internally based (i.e., as being due to that person rather than to an external situation) and as a constant, stable quality
        
        For example, a laid-off employee who struggles to find a job may attribute the problem to his perceived inability to network properly rather than to the fact that it is tough to find jobs in his field.
        
        NEGATIVE AFFECTIVITY: the tendency to respond to problems with a pattern of anxiety, hostility, anger, guilt, or nervousness
        
        For instance, someone with high levels of negativity may deal with a difficult breakup by socially withdrawing from others and by becoming angry and resentful
      - The Nun Study, as it is now known, was exceptional in that it allowed researchers to examine how personality factors such as optimism and pessimism affected people over the course of their lifetime while controlling for variables such as diet, work demands, and stress. As part of this study (which is part of a longitudinal study about factors leading to Alzheimer’s disease), the researchers examined the handwritten autobiographies of 180 nuns. These documents were written by the nuns when they were entering the order in their early to mid-twenties. The emotional content of the autobiographies was coded by the researchers to see if positive emotions predicted how long the nuns lived.
    - - POST-TRAUMATIC GROWTH:the capacity to grow and experience long-term positive effects in response to negative events
    - - focused attention (FA) meditation: the individual focuses his or her attention on a chosen object, such as a point on the wall or a physical sensation like the feeling related to breathing. When distracting or negative thoughts enter into their awareness and interfere with meditation, people are taught to accept these thoughts in a nonjudgmental manner, and to then nudge their attention back to its original focus
      - open monitoring (OM) meditation: meditators pay attention to moment-by-moment sensations without focusing on any particular object (Cahn & Polich, 2006). A key feature of OM is to attempt to experience each sensation intensely, examining its rich sensory properties and emotional characteristics in great depth;
      - integrated mind–body training (IMBT): This technique, developed from traditional Chinese medicine, involves a combination of relaxation and posture correction, as well as instructions for heightening awareness of your own body
        
        In this study, activity within the anterior cingulate was associated with the participants’ increased control over parasympathetic nervous system responses. The increased parasympathetic activity accounted for the heightened sense of relaxation experienced while meditating
    - - The primary goal of MBSR is to help people to cope and to relax by increasing the link between the body and mind. A common meditative technique used in MBSR is a body scan in which participants pay attention to the sensation of their toes, then their feet, ankles, calves, and so on.
      - MBSR also leads to increased brain activity in the insula, a brain area related to perceiving bodily sensations; this area is involved with a person’s ability to focus on the present moment
    - - BRAIN-DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR (BDNF)—a protein in the nervous system that promotes survival, growth, and the formation of new synapses
  - - - When people feel as though they lack control over the world, their need for structure, perceptual order, and beliefs in superstition and conspiracies increases. Participants who perceived that they were in control of events were unlikely to see images in snowy pictures (see Figure 14.10) and did not hold superstitious beliefs or endorse conspiracy theories. When people perceived that they had lost a sense of control during the experimental procedure, they reported a greater need for structure, perceived images in random arrays, became more superstitious, and endorsed conspiracy theories (Whitson & Galinsky, 2008).