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Cognition and Perception - Coggle Diagram

- - - - field independence
        
        Focus on the internal properties of a focal object as the major cause of events, not the background
      - low causal complexity
        
        Understand causal relations in terms of a small number of factors
      - taxonomical categorization
        
        categorize world by the internal properties within objects
      - low tolerance for contradiction
        
        Emphasize the use of western formal logic
    - - field dependence
        
        Focus on the relationships between a focal object and the things in the background as the major causes of events
      - high causal complexity
        
        understand causal relations in terms of a large number of factors
      - thematic categorization
        
        categorize the world by the relationships among objects
      - high tolerance for contradiction
        
        emphasize less on the use of formal logic
- - - - participant was then told to identify the essay writer's true attitudes towards Castro
      - results
        
        Even tho it was clear to them that writers had no choice in what they wrote
        
        they attributed behaviour of writing the essay to reflecting the writer's underlying personality
        
        participants still assumed that person who was instructed to write a pro-Castro essay had positive attitudes towards Castro & person who wrote anti-castro essay had negative attitudes towards Castro
      - before reading essay about Fidel castro, participant was told that the writer had been instructed to write with a perspective that was to be used in a debate
  - - - As Americans got older, more likely to make dispositional attributions
      - Indian adults showed reverse fundamental attribution error cos focus more on situation than on disposition
      - children gave quite similar responses between both cultures
    - - asked to describe a situation when someone behaved in a prosocial manner or deviant manner & then explain why person behaved that way
  - - - dispositional attribution
        
        explain ppl's behaviour in terms of underlying dispositions
    - - situational attribution
        
        explain ppl' behaviour in terms of contextual variables
  - - - American reporters made more reference of disposition of accused than situation (eg. mentally unstable)
      - Chinese reporters made more references to situations that provoked the accused (eg. was recently fired from job)
- - - - perceive the world as consisting of an interrelated whole
      - direct their attention more broadly across an entire scene
    - - perceive world as consisting of discrete objects
      - more likely to focus attention on separate parts of a scene
  - - - analytic thinkers perform better
        
        show field independence
        
        able to decontextualise focal objects from their background fields
        
        break the whole into discrete, detachable parts in visual field
      - asked participants whether rod is pointing straight up
      - holistic thinkers perform poorly
        
        field dependence
        
        tend to view objects as bound to their backgrounds
        
        hard to isolate focal objects from background
      - field independence also relates to
        
        industrialised societies compared to rural farmers
        
        religious training in Calvinism which emphasizes independence of individuals
        
        more introverted people
    - - Jap participants made more references to background objects than Americans who talked more about fish in the scene
      - they were then shown additional scenes. Some fish were presented with same background earlier, some fish were shown with novel background
      - American & jap participants shown animated computer images of underwater scene with swimming fish and background objects in fish tank & asked to describe what they saw
      - Results
        
        American
        
        regardless of background, American's recognition of fish were pretty much the same
        
        Jap
        
        more likely to recognize fish when it was with original background than when paired with novel background.
        
        seen the fish & background scenery as bound together
        
        asians tend to rmb and recall info as a collective whole while Americans do so as a series of discrete, separable parts
    - - Drawing study
        
        jap students included higher horizons & 75% more extra contextual objects in the scene
        
        asked American & Jap students
        
        draw landscape scene within 5 minutes
        
        contain house, tree, river, person and horizon
        
        can draw additional objects if they want
      - photography study
        
        results
        
        jap participant's photo had lower face-to-canvas ratio
        
        jap participant's photo had more contextual details abt surroundings
        
        asked american and east asian participants to take photograph of the same model
      - observations
        
        east asian paintings
        
        shrink the size of people in portraits by zooming out
        
        horizons significantly higher
        
        directs audience's eyes to diff objects and places within a scene to be seen in relation to one another
        
        Western paintings
        
        larger size of people in portraits -> focus audience's eyes on individual
        
        emphasize depiction of focal objects and not context
        
        lower horizons
    - - then chinese & american participants were shown just one of the pictures and asked the likelihood of the other picture appearing beside it
      - Chinese estimates of the correct picture appearing were more accurate than estimates of American students
      - pairs of pictures on computer such that when one picture was shown, the other picture was shown 0% of the time, 40% of the time, 60% of the time, or 100% of the time
- - - - factors & outcome do not need to match in their size
      - since elements affect one another in a highly complicated manner
    - - fewer interactions among elements
      - factors & outcomes expected to be somewhat proportional
      - causal chains shorter
    - - tendency to expect a match in magnitude between causes and effects
  - - - because only few causes are associated with an outcome, removing these causes should prevent outcome from happening
    - - because causality is complex with numerous factors, removing some factors may not prevent the outcome
    - - tendency to perceive life events to be predetermined & unchangeable
    - - americans
        
        hence higher sense of agency and control
        
        entity theory of self, incremental theory of world
        
        relatively easier to prevent things from happening
      - Asians
        
        better to adjust to whatever happens
        
        entity theory of the world, incremental theory of self
        
        things happen for too many reasons
  - - - fewer indirect, remote factors
      - few interactions among factors
      - fewer direct, immediate factors
    - - more indirect, remote factors
      - more interactions among factors
      - assumes more direct, immediate factors
- - - - Chinese more likely to provide statements that contradict each other
      - eg. describe as both introverted and extroverted
      - Chinese and American participants asked to describe themselves in open-ended questionnaire
    - - Easterners see the future in a more nonlinear form, with lots of ups & downs
      - study
        
        asked to estimate what they thought would happen over the next few years
        
        Results
        
        chinese more likely to predict trend would reverse direction
        
        American more likely assume trend would continue in same direction as in the past
        
        Chinese and American students given graphs indicating past performance of trends such as economy growth rate & death rates
      - westerners view future as unfolding in more linear way
    - - Half received only either argument A or B. Other half received both arguments
      - results
        
        American
        
        when given 2 contradictory arguments, they view the better argument as more compelling than when given that argument alone
        
        also, reject the less compelling argument
        
        Chinese
        
        when given 2 contradictory arguments, became less convinced with the better argument and now found the less plausible argument now more convincing
        
        they noticed the contradiction and reminded them that just like the world, it is often contradictory, so just accept both
      - Chinese & American students given 2 contradicting arguments about smoking leading to weight gain or loss
    - - Easterners behaviour and private attitudes contradict more than Westerners
  - - - things wax and wane between the 2 opp poles
      - extreme of one force breeds the opposite
    - - within a phenomena u can find trace of its opposite
    - - things move in flux and cycles all the time
    - - things flow and change in forms without being easily noticed
    - - 2 opposite phenomena