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CHAPTER 10-12, Point mutation Substitution Insertion/deletion, Get rid…
CHAPTER 10-12
CHAPTER 12
Gene Cloning and Editing
Genes can be cloned in recombinant
plasmids
• Biotechnology
• DNA technology
Restriction enzymes & restriction fragments.
Nucleic acid probe
Nucleic acid probes can label specific
DNA segments
• Complementary DNA (cDNA)
• The CRISPR-Cas9 system allows researchers to target a specific gene in a living cell for removal or editing
• DNA ligase
• GMOs
DNA technology has changed the pharmaceutical industry and medicine
eg. Vaccines
Gene therapy
Gene therapy may
someday help treat a variety of diseases
• Recombinant DNA
• Gene cloning
• Bacterial plasmids (vector)
w/ recombinant DNA
Genetically Modified Organisms
Recombinant cells and organisms can
mass-produce gene products
• Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
Transgenic organism
Genetically modified
organisms are transforming agriculture
DNA Profiling
• Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) w/ primers
Gel electrophoresis
Gel electrophoresis sorts DNA
molecules by size
The PCR method is used to amplify
DNA sequences
Repetitive DNA: Short tandem repeats (STRs)
Short tandem repeat analysis is used
for DNA profiling
The applications of DNA profiling include helping to
• solve crimes
• establish paternity
• identify victims.
Genomics and Bioinformatics
Next- and third-generation sequencing machines
Genomics
Genomics is the scientific study of
whole genomes
• Human Genome
Project (HGP)
Whole-genome
shotgun sequencing
The whole-genome shotgun method of sequencing a genome can provide a wealth of data quickly
The human Genome Project revealed that most of the human genome does not consist of genes
Bioinformatics
• Proteomics
Genomes
hold clues to human evolution
Databases
CHAPTER 10
The structure of the Genetic Material
Bacteriophages/ phages
"Bacteria eaters" viruses effectively infect bacteria
1. A phage attacks itself to a bacterial cell
3. The phage DNA directs the host cell to make more phage DNA and proteins; new phages assemble
2. The phage injects it’s DNA into the bacteriom
4. The cell lysis and release the new phages
Hypertonic
Macromolecules
Monomers
Nucleotides
Polymers
Polynucleotide
2 Types
DNA
Deoxyribose
A,T,C,G
RNA
Ribose
A,U,C,G
T, C
Pyrimidines
A, G, U
Purines
Nucleotides are joined covalent bonds
sugar phosphate back bone
Double Helix
Polynucleotide strands
DNA Replication
Replication depends on the specific base pairing
DNA Base Pair
A
T
C
G
G
C
T
A
Enzymes
DNA polymerase
growing daughter strands
DNA ligase
Okazaki fragment
Links our ligates pieces together are single DNA
Mutations
Mutagens
Lagging strands
Fragments linked together
The Flow of Genetic Information from DNA to RNA to Protein
Two main stages
Transcription
Synthesis of RNA direction of DNA
Translation
Synthesis of protein of the direction of RNA
In the cytoplasm
Ribosome
DNA
RNA
Polypeptide
Translation
Transcription
Gene
Expression overview
Triplet code
Flow of information
Codons
Polypeptide chain written DNA & RNA series of non-overlapping three based
“words”
UUU
GGC
CGU
UUU
Square
CGU
Circle
Amino acid
square
Genetic code
Amino acid translations of each of the nucleotides
RNA Polymerase
Promoter & Terminator
Initiation
Elongation
Termination
Detaches from newly RNA + Gene
Newly formed RNA strand grown
A. Codon recognition
B. Reptile bond
C. Translocation
Attachment of RNA polymerase
-start RNA Synthesis
A. mRNA + SSU + Initiator tRNA (start)
Begin on the mRNA molecule
B. LSU & Initiator tRNA -> P site
Hold growing polypeptide
Messenger RNA
(mRNA)
RNA Splicing
Cutting-and-pasting process
Eukaryote RNA process before leaving nucleotides
Transfer RNA
(tRNA)
Special type of RNA
Anticodon
Specific amino acid attachment site at other
Single- stranded loop at the end of the fluid molecule contains special triplet base
Ribosomes
Final compartment of translation
Ribosomal RNA
rRNA + proteins
Binding sites for tRNA & mRNA
Two subunits
Large and small subunits
Made-up with protein and a type of rRNA
Mutations
Change of the genetic information cell or virus
Mutagens
Silent mutations
Missensen mutation
Nonsense mutation
Frameshift mutation
Mutation, number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple three
Changes amino acid codon into a stop codon
Changes amino acid to another
Same amount amino acid
The Genetic of Viruses and Bacteria
Virus
Infectious particles
Capsid + nucleic acid
Sometimes membrane envelope
Nucleic and wrapped in a protein coat
Lytic Cycle
“Breaking open” of host, release newly produced virus
Lysogenic cycle
Prohage
Viral DNA replicated occur without destroying the host
Emerging viruses
HIV
AIDS
ZIKA
(Acquired immunodeficiency Syndrome)
(Human immunodeficiency Virus)
that causes
Retro virus
Reverse transcriptase
RNA virus that reproduce by means DNA a molecule
Prions
Misfolded form of a normal brain protein
3 Mechanism
Transformation
Foreign DNA surrounding environment
Transduction
Transfer to bacterial genes of a phages
Conjugation
Recipient cell’s chromosome
Recombinant Chromosome
F factor (f for fertility)
Gene on chromosome or plasmid
R plasmids
One class
Antibiotic resistance
CHAPTER 11
Control of Gene Expression
Gene expression
Gene regulation
Operans
Regulatory proteins
Codes for the repsessors
Entire stretch DNA enzyme production
Activators
Proteins that openings on by binding to DNA and simulating gene transcription
Turns on and off he’ll organism respond environment
Genetic information flows from genes to protein, genotype to phenotype.
promoter
Transcription enzyme, RNA polymerase attaches
Cells Differentiate
Individual cells have to undergo specialized structure and function
Epigenetic inheritance
Not involving nucleotide sequence
Histones + DNA -> nucleosomes
Packed up DNA = no expression
X chromosomes inactivation
Embryonic development
Barr body
Eukaryotic usually use activators
Most genes off
Transcription factors
Proteins assisting RNA polymerase
Enchanters
Control sequence
Alternative RNA splicing
Humans
90% protein-coding gene
Produce more than one type of polypeptide from a single gene
Regulations
Breakdown of mRNA
Regulatory protein for translation
Protein processing
Second to last stage to make it functional
Cytoplasm breakdown molecule of mRNA
Functional RNA
miRNA
siRNA
RNAi
(RnA interference)
Blocking of gene expression by siRNA
(small interfering RNAs)
Small molecule DNA
RNA interference of translation
Formation of centrosomes
Methylation for gametes formation
(Micro RNA)
Small single stranded molecule
Degree complementing miRNA
Block translation of partially complementing
Eukaryotes
Gene expression can be regulated multiple ways within both the nucleus and cytoplasm
Homeotic gene
Master control gene that regulates groups
Expression of specific gene
Nucleic acid hybridzation
DNA microarray
”gene chip”, tiny amounts of a large number of different single-stranded
base pairing one strand of a nucleic acid to complementary sequence on another strand
Signal transduction pathway
Series of molecular changes that converts a signal on a target cell’s surface to a specific response inside the cell
Cloning of Plants and Animals
Clone
Totipotent
Regeneration
Regrown of body parts
Cable of producing every kind of specialized cell in the organism
An organism produced by asexual reproduction
Nuclear transplantation
Animal cloning
Replacing the nucleus of an egg cells or a zygote
A nucleus from an injected adult somatic cell. If properly stimulated, the recipient cell may then begin to divide
After a few days, repeated cell divisions form a blastocyst a hallow ball of about 100 cells.
If the animal being cloned is a mammal, the blastocyst is then implanted into the uterus of a surrogate mother.
Reproductive cloning
Birth of a new living individual
Identical to donor
Embryonic stem cells
A blastocyst, made via natural sexual reproduction or produce by nuclear transplantation
Therapeutic cloning
Produce ES cells to treat diseases
Adult stem cells
Replace no reproducing specialized cells as needed
The Genetic Basis of Cancer
Oncogene
Causes cancer with a single copy in the cell
Proto-oncogene
Normal cellular gene that has the potential to become a oncogene
Tumor-Suppressor Genes
Proteins they encode help prevent uncontrolled cell growth
Somatic mutation to cancer
colon cancer
Colon cancer begins when an oncogene arises or it’s activated through mutation, causing multiple division of normal cells in the colon lining
DNA mutations, such as the inactivation of a tumor-suppressor gene, cause the growth of a small benign tumor (a polyp) in the colon wall
More mutations eventually lead to formation of malignant tumor, a tumor that has the potential to Metastasize (spread).
Cellular changes
DNA changed
An oncogene is activated
A tumor-suppressor gene is inactivated
A second tumor-suppressor gene is inactivated
Increased cell division
Growth of a polyp (benign tumor)
Growth of a malignant tumor
Mutations
Normal
Mutant
No growth factor
Hyperactive relay protein
Over expression of stimulating protein
Increased cell division
Growth factor
Protein that stimulates cell division
Normal cell division
inhibitor
Normal
Mutant
Nonfunctional transcription factor
Protein absent (cell division not inhibited)
Increased cell division
Growth inhibiting factor
Protein that inhibits cell division
No cell division
Carcinogens
Agents that alter DNA and make cells cancerous
Point mutation
Substitution
Insertion/deletion
Get rid of introns
“Intervening sequence”
encoding region
Associates same protein & producing similar results
Connects exons
Coding region expressed gene
Stop codon
Reaches ribosome’s A site
Faith Kibe
Kayla Somera.
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