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Connections Assignment Ch.10-12 - Coggle Diagram
Connections Assignment Ch.10-12
Chapter 10
Big Idea #1: The Structure of Genetic Material
Bacteriophage: a virus that infects bacteria, "bacteria eaters"
Polynucleotide: a polymer made of multiple nucleotide monomers covalently bonded together
Sugar-phosphate backbone: the alternating chain of sugar and phosphate where nitrogenous bases are added; found in nucleotides
found in both DNA and RNA strands
Nitrogenous Bases
Pyrimidines
Thymine
Uracil
Cytosine
Purines
Adenine
Guanine
Genome: Complete genetic library (all the books on the bookshelf)
Chromosome: One very long piece of DNA (the books on the shelf)
Gene: a region of DNA that can be expressed to produce a functional product (recipe in a book)
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): Double helix made of 2 polynucleotide chains wrapped around each other
Function: to encode and store genetic info, acting as the molecular base of heirarchy
Big Idea #2: DNA Replication
Semi-conservative model: type of DNA replication where the replicated double helix consists of one old strand and one new strand
strands are replicated in the 5' to 3' direction
DNA Polymerase: "the builder", a large molecular complex that assembles DNA nucleotides into polynucleotides
DNA Ligase: "the glue", links the short pieces of DNA together into a single DNA strand
Big Idea #3: The Flow of Genetic Info from DNA to RNA to Protein
Transcription: the synthesis of RNA on a DNA template (DNA -> RNA)
RNA polymerase: the transcription enzyme for RNA
Translation: the synthesis of proteins under the direction of RNA
Triplet code: a set of 3 nucleotide long "words" that specift the amino acids for polypeptide chains
Codon: a 3 nucleotide sequence in mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid or polypeptide termination signal
Start codon: marks where protein synthesis should begin
End codon: marks the end of a protein
There are 4 letters (G,A,C,U) and 3 letters are needed to make a "word" aka amino acid
Genetic Code: the set of rules that dictates the amino acid tranlations of each mRNA nucleotide triplet
Promoter: a specific nucleotide sequence that acts as a binding site for RNA polymerase and guides where transcription starts
Terminator: A sequence of DNA bases that marks the end of a gene
Types of RNA
messenger RNA (mRNA): the type of RNA that encodes info from DNA and conveys it to ribosomes
in prokaryotic cells, the lack of nuclei means that both transcription and translation happens in the cytoplasm
transfer RNA (tRNA): RNA that acts as an interpeter in translation
Function: to transfer amino acids from the cytoplasm pool to a growing polypeptide chain in a ribosome
Anticodon: a specific sequence of 3 nucleotides that is completementary to the codon triplet in mRNA, a key step in translating mRNA to polypeptide
ribosomal RNA (rNA): non coding RNA that makes up ribosomes
Ribosomes: a cell structure made of RNA and protein and functions as the site of protein synthesis
Introns: "in the way", noncoding genes
Exons: "expressed", part of a gene that becomes a part of the mRNA and is therefore expressed
RNA splicing: the removal of introns and joining of exons in eukaryotic RNA
Mutation: any change in the genetic information of a cell or a virus
Silent mutation: a mutation that changes one codon to another one that codes for the same amino acid, amino acid sequence remains unchanged
Missense mutation: a change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene, changing the amino acid sequence and therefore the resulting protein
ex: sickle-cell disease
Nonsense mutation: mutation that converts an amino acid encoding codon to a stop codon, prematurely ending the protein
protein probably wont' even work because it was never finished
Connection to CH. 1:
Structure and Function are related
Frame shift mutation: a change in genetic material that involved the insertion/deletion of one of more nucleotides in a gene, resulting in a shift in the triplet groupings
"shifts" the codons over
Connection to CH.1:
Flow of Information
Big IDea #4: The Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria
Virus: an infectious particle capable of inserting its genetic material into cells of living organisms
made of a capsid (a protein) + capsule + sometimes plasma membrane
Emerging viruses: a virus that's appeared suddenly or has recently come to the attention of medical scientists
Retrovirus: an RNA virus that reproduces by making DNA molecules (reverses the usual DNA-> RNA flow)
Reverse Transcriptase: catalyzes the reverse transcription, which is the synthesis of DNA on an RNA template
Lytic cycle: a type of viral replication cycle that results in the release of a new virus by lysis of the host cell
Lysogenic cycle: "stealth mode", viral genome that is incorporated into the host chromosome
Any change in the environment can cause the bacteria to pop and go into the lytic cycle
Prophage: phage DNA that was inserted, through genetic recombination, into the DNA of a bacterial chromosome
Prion: an infectious protein that causes brain disease
Bacteria can transfer DNA in 3 ways
Transduction: the transfer of bacterial genes from one bacterial cell to another by a phage
Conjugation: when some bacteria cells "mate"; the physcial union of 2 bacterial cells and the DNA transfer between them
Transformation: the uptake of foregin DNA from surrounding environment
EX: Frederick Griffith's experiments with pneumonia bacteria
F Factor: a piece of DNA that can exists as a bacterial plamid; carries genes for making sex pili and other structures needed for conjugation
Plasma: an extra loop of DNA found in bacteria
R plasmid: a bacteria plasmid that carries genes for enzymes that destroy particular antibiotics, making the bacteria resistant to antibiotics
Diseases caused by DNA
Hepatits, chicken pox, herpes infection
Diseases caused by RNA
coronavirus, measles, mumps, HIV/AIDS
Chapter 12
Big Idea #1: Gene Cloning and Editing
Biotechnology: the manipulation of living organisms or their parts to make useful products
DNA technology: methods used to study and manipulate DNA, including recombinant DNA technology
Modern version of biotechnology
Connection to CH.1
The goal of technology is to apply science for a specific purpose, which is what biotechnology and DNA technology does
Recombinant DNA: formed when scientists combine pieces of DNA from 2 different species, in vitro
Genetic engineering: the direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes
DNA cloning: the production of many identical copies from a target segment of DNA
Vector: a piece of DNA, usually plasmid or a viral genome, that is sued to move genes from one cell to another; acts as a carrier
DNA cloning: the production of multiple copies of a gene
Either the gene itself is the product or a protein from the cloned gene is the target
Cutting and pasting DNA
Restriction enzymes: a bacterial enzyme that cuts up foreign DNA at restriction sites; protects bacteria against intruding DNA
Restriction site: specific sequence on a DNA srtant that's seen as a "cut site" by restriction enzymes
Restriction fragments: molecules of DNA made from a longer DNA molecule cut up by a restriction enzyme
DNA ligase: the "glue"; enzyme that catalyzes the covalent bonding of adjacent DNA polynucleotide strands
Sticky ends: single stranded regions of a DNA fragment whose unpaired bases can H-bond to complementary regions on another fragment
Nucleic Acid Probes: single stranded DNA or RNA with a strong affinity towards a specific DNA or RNA sequence
used to find a specific gene or nucleotide sequence within a mass of DNA and the probes are labelled with a radioactive isotopes or a fluroscent tag
Reverse Transcriptase: enzyme that is coded and used by retroviruses to catalyze the synthesis of DNA on an RNA template
complementary DNA (cDNA): a DNA molecule made in vitro using mRNA as a template and the enzyme reverse transcriptase
CRISPR-Cas9 System: new method of gene editing
Big Idea #2: GMOs
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): an organism that has one or more of its gene received through artificial means
Transgenic Organism: an organism that contains genes from another species; an example of a recombinant organism
Gene therapy: a treatment for a disease in which the patient's defective gene is supplemented or altered
Eugenics: the deliberate effort to control the genetic makeup of human populations
Connection to CH.1
: the ethical problems are determined by society, which limits the research and technology that scientists can make
Big Idea #3: DNA profiling
Forensics: the scientific analysis of evidence for a crime scene and other legal proceedings
DNA profiling: the analysis of DNA samples to determine whether or not they came from the same person
Genetic markers are compared
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): a technique used to obtain many copies of a DNA molecule or a specific part of a DNA molecule
Gel eletrophoresis: a technique for separating macromolecules--usually DNA or proteins-- based on size, electrical charge, or other physical properties
DNA is negatively charged so they are sorted by size
Repetitive DNA: nucleotide sequences present in many copies of DNA in a genome
Short tandem repeat )STR): a series of short DNA sequences that are repeated many times in a row; labelled by site
STR analysis: a method of DNA profiling that compares the lengths of STR sequences at specific sites on the genome
Vaccines: biological agents meant to trigger a response from the immune system to a specific pathogen; trains the immune system to defend against diseases
Big Idea #4: Genomics and Bioinformatics
DNA sequencing: using complementary base pairs to determine the complete nucleotide sequence of small DNA molecules
Genomics: the study of completed genes and their interactions
Connection to CH.1
Science is a way to understand the natural world
Human Genome Project (HGP): an internation collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome
Whole-Genome Shotgun Method: a method for determining the DNA sequence of an entire genome
Bioinformatics: the use of computers, software, and mathematical models to process and intergrate biological information from large sets of data
Proteomics: the study of whole sets of proteins and their interactions
Chapter 11
Big Idea #1: Control of Gene Expression
Gene Regulation: the turning on anf off of genes within a cell in response to environmental changes
Promoter: a nucleotide sequence in DNA; found in the start of the gene and acts as the binding site for DNA polymerase
found in prokaryotes
Operator: acts as a switch; determines whether or not RNA polymerase can attach to the promoter and start transcribing the genes
Operon: a cluster of genes with related function; works with the promoter, operator, and the genes
Repressor: a protein that blocks the transcription of a gene or operon by binding to the operator and physically preventing RNA polymerase from attaching
Inducible: repressor is active until a certain substance deactivates it
Repressible: repressor is inactive until an excess of product activates it
Activators: a protein that switches on a group of genes
Transcription factors: protein that functions in starting or regulating transcription
found in eukaryotic cells
Enchancers: a DNA sequence that helps stimulate the transripction of a gene at some distance from it
Gene expression: the process of genetic information glowing from genes to proteins; the flow of genetic information from genotype to phenotype
Differentiation: when individual cells become specialized in their structure and function
DNA packing
Histones: a small protein molecule that helps in DNA packing
Nucleosome: the bead-like unit of DNA packing in a eukaryotic cell, made of DNA wound twice around a protein core made of histone molecules
Epigenetic inheritance: inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directily involving the nucleotide sequence, such as environment or social influences
Alternative RNA splicing: a type of regulation at the RNA-processing level in which multiple RNA molecules are made from the same transcript
the protein made will depend on which RNA segments are seens as exons and which as introns
Connection to CH.1
: Structure and function are related
microRNAs (miRNAs): RNAs that stop the production of a specific protein by destroying the mRNA that would have made that protein
if miRNA and mRNA match, then the whole mRNA is degraded
Connection to CH.1
: Life Depends on Interactions
if only some parts of miRNA and mRNA match then translation is blocked
small interfering RNA (siRNA): helps in the formation of centromeres and in methylazion for gamete formation
RNA interference: the blocking of gene expression by siRNAs
Homeotic gene: a master control gene that determines the identity of a body structure by controlling the developmental fate of groups of cells
Nucelic acid hybridization: the process of base pairing between a gene and a complemenrary sequence on another nucleic acid molecule
DNA microarray: a collection of microscopic DNA spots attached to a solid surface and arranged in a grid
used to detect and measure the expression of thousands of genes at once
Signal transduction pathway: a series of molecular changes that converts a signal on a target cell's surface to a specific response inside the cell
Connection to Ch.1
: Flow of Information
X-chromosome inactivation: in female mammals, the inactivation of an x chromosome in each somatic cell
Barr body: a dense body formed from a deactivated x chromosome found in the nuclei of mammalian cells
Big Idea #2: Cloning of Plants and Animals
Totipotent: a cell that can give rise to all the different types of cells within an organism
found mostly in plants
Clone: an organism produced through asexual reproduction from a single parent
Regeneration: the regrowth of body parts from pieces of an organism
Nuclear transplantation: a technique where the nucleus of one cell is placed another cell
Types of cloning
Theraputic cloning: when the goal is to make embyronic stem cells to treat diseases
Reproductive cloning: using a somatic cell from a multicellular organism to make one or more genetically identical individuals
Adult stem cells: cells in adult tissue that makes replacements for nondividing differentiated cells
capable of differentiating into different cells but aren't ad flexible as embryonic stem cells
Embyronic stem cells: cell in the early animal embyo that differentiates during development to give rise to all the different kinds of specialized cells in the body
Big Idea #3: The Genetic Basis of Cancer
Oncogenic: a cancer causing gene
Proto-oncogenic: a normal cellular gene that has the potential to become an oncogene through mutation
A mutation in the gene leads to a hyperactive growth stimulating protein in normal amounts
multiple copies of the gene results in a normal growth-stimulating protein in excess amounts
mutation within a control region of the DNA results in a normal growth-stimulating protein in excess
Tumor suppressing genes: a gene whose product inhibits cell division, thereby stopping uncontrolled cell growth
Carcinogen: a cancer causing substance
Mutagen: an agent, such as a chemical substance, that causes a mutation