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Chapter 25: Populations and Ecosystems, Cross Connection: As the…

- - - - Community
  - - - Community
      - Physical, non-living environment
    - - Additional levels of interaction
      - Complexity
- - - - Non-living
      - Physical phenomena
    - - Examples of components
        
        Rainfall
        
        Relative humidity
        
        Temperature
        
        Winds
      - Important to organism survival
      - Determines growing season
      - Temperature extremes importtant
    - - Soils formed by rock breakdown
      - New Soil
        
        Pioneers
        
        Tolerate severe conditions
        
        First plants invading new soil
        
        No neighboring plants
        
        Associated with nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes
        
        Help change soil
        
        Sandy
        
        Little water-holding capacity
      - Thick soil
        
        Produced from new soil after many years
        
        Three layers or horizons
        
        A horizon
        
        Uppermost
        
        Called zone of leaching
        
        Consists of
        
        Litter
        
        Debris
        
        B horizon
        
        Area where materials from horizon A accumulate
        
        Called zone of deposition
        
        Rich in nutrients
        
        Contains
        
        Humus
        
        Clay
        
        C horizon
        
        Below B horizon
        
        Composed of
        
        Parent rock
        
        Rock fragments
      - Latitude and Altitude
        
        Latitude
        
        Contributes many factors
        
        Length of day
        
        Amount of light energy
        
        Temperature fluctuation
        
        Altitude
        
        Winds
        
        Temperature
        
        Soil
        
        Ultraviolet light amount
      - Disturbance #
        
        Phenomena examples
        
        Landslides
        
        Snow avalanches
        
        Fires
        
        Floods
        
        Quickly produce significant change to an ecosystem
        
        Little impact on other abiotic factors
        
        Causes adaptions
  - - - Modifies habitat by being in it
      - Modification may be
        
        Beneficial
        
        Detrimental
        
        Neutral
    - - Several individuals occur together
      - Possible interaction created
      - Interactions can be
        
        Mutualism
        
        Competition #
        
        should result in species modification through natural selection
      - Competitive exclusion
        
        Theory on result of competition
        
        Less adapt plant excluded from ecosystem
      - Niche
        
        Species assumed to be adapted to particular conditions
        
        No other species adapted to use as efficiently
        
        Refers to aspects of the habitat that directly affect a species
      - Alternative competition theory
        
        Species over lap tolerance ranges
        
        Species grown together have exclusive use of portion of rage not used by other
        
        Overlap usage determined by competition
      - Ecotypes
        
        Subpopulations specialized for certain features
        
        Specialization in response to particular ecosystem factors
        
        Strongly resemble one another
        
        Transplant experiments
        
        Used to test whether ecotypes really exist
        
        Plants from both sites transplanted in common garden
  - - - Aspects of habitat that definitely affect a plant
  - - - Fungi
      - Prokaryotes
      - Animals
    - - Beneficial
        
        Mutualistic
        
        Pollination
        
        Seed dispersal through frugivores
        
        Both benefit
        
        Plants can have this relationship with fungus
        
        Commensal
        
        One benefits, one is unaffected
        
        Birds nesting in trees
        
        Seeds sticking to fur
      - Detrimental
        
        Predation
        
        One benefits, one is harmed
        
        One species uses the other for food or other resourse
        
        Herbivore
        
        Eats plants
        
        Process called herbivory
        
        Precisely delimited as
        
        Browsing
        
        Grazing
        
        Pathogenic
        
        Relationship of plant with
        
        Fungus
        
        Bacteria
        
        Can cause plant
        
        Mild disease
        
        Death
- - - - Limiting factor
        
        Determines health of plant
        
        Applies to all aspects of plant interaction with its habitat
        
        Any factor in ecosystem can act as a limiting factor
    - - Small-scale distribution
      - Three types of local distribution
        
        Clumped distribution
        
        Spacing between plants is small or large, rarely average
        
        Can result from many factors
        
        Uniform distribution
        
        All individuals evenly spaced from neighbors
        
        Not common in natural populations
        
        When in nature thought to be from competition
        
        Establish zones through releasing allelochemics
        
        Inhibition is called allelopathy
        
        Random distribution
        
        No obvious identifiable pattern
        
        No predictive value
  - - - Old individuals
      - Middle-aged individuals
      - Young individuals
    - - Generation time
        
        Length of time from birth of individual to birth of its first offspring
        
        Affects rapidity of population growth
      - Intrinsic rate of natural increase
        
        Also called biotic potential
        
        Number of offspring produced by individual that live to reproduce under ideal conditions
        
        Represented in population equations as r
        
        Carrying capacity
        
        Number of individuals that can live in an ecosystem
        
        Symbolized by K
        
        Number of individuals (N)
        
        In theory one N approaches K it should level off
        
        Nature doesn't always follow this theory
  - - - Usually produced by disturbance
      - Mutations that increase r are selectively advantageous
      - r-selected species
        
        Typically annuals or small shrubby perennials
        
        As new species re-establish r-selected species are at a disadvantage
    - - K-selected species
        
        Long lived perennials
        
        Face intense competition
      - In K habitats almost every site is full
- - - - Shape of organism
      - Distribution in relation to each other
      - Physical size
    - - Defined by C. Raunkier
      - Include
        
        Geophytes
        
        Hemicryptophytes
        
        Therophytes
        
        Chamaephytes
        
        Phanerophytes
  - - - Climate
      - Soil
      - Tolerance ranges
  - - - Autotrophs
      - First step to food web
      - Bring energy into the system
    - - Herbivores that feed on primary producers
      - Also includes omnivores
    - - Carnivores that feed on herbivores
      - Omnivores also included in this level
    - - Break down remains of all types of organisms
      - Include
        
        Fungi
        
        Bacteria
    - - Energy being transferred through the levels
      - As trophic level increases usable energy decreases