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PBL 1: Teen Pregnancy, Observational data point to peer influence as a…

- - - - Seen in structural and functional changes within the prefrontal cortex and connections to other brain regions. Differing timetables of these changes make mid-adolescence a time of heightened vulnerability to risky and reckless behavior(Steinberg, 2008)
        
        Due primarily to increases in sensation seeking that are linked to changes in patterns of dopaminergic activity around the time of puberty (Steinberg, 2008)
      - As the cognitive-control system gradually matures over the course of the teenage years, adolescents grow in their capacity to coordinate affect and cognition and to exercise self-regulation, even in emotionally arousing situations (Chein et al, 2013)
    - - Early maturing girls are more likely to be unprepared emotionally and cognitively for the changes of puberty itself and the social pressures that they may experience from boys and adults who perceive them to be more mature than their age and experience (Graber et al, 1999)
  - - - Early maturation was associated with early sex in daughters and may be one pathway for the inter-generational transfer of risk for teenage pregnancy (De Genna et al,2011).
      - 47% of students in grades 9-12 reported that they had experienced sexual intercourse; about 20% of female teens who have had sexual intercourse become pregnant each year (Goesling et al, 2014).
      - Early maturation was associated with early sex in daughters (De Genna et al,2011).
      - Early puberty is associated with earlier alcohol us and sexual initiation which predicted early pregnancy (Deardorff et al, 2005).
      - Early maturing girls experienced significantly higher levels of psychological distress compared to their on-time and late maturing age-mates (Ge et al,1996)
        
        More vulnerable to prior psychological problems, deviant peer pressures, and fathers' hostile feelings when compared to on-time and late maturing peers (Ge et al, 1996)
      - Nineteen percent of the men reported they impregnated a teenage girl. Sexual abuse as a boy at age 10 years or younger increased the risk of them impregnating a teenage girl by 80%. Sexual abuse with violence increased the risk by 110% (Anda et al, 2001).
    - - Male participants favoured adolescent and adult female stimuli (Mokros et al, 2011).
      - (Marín et al, 2000).
        
        Girls were more likely to have experienced menarche (first occurrence of menstruation)
        
        An older boyfriend/girlfriend reported more unwanted sexual advances and more friends who were sexually active.
        
        Students with an older boyfriend/girlfriend were over 30 times more likely than those with no boyfriend/girlfriend ever to have had sex
      - “Normal” heterosexual men were sexually aroused by photos of both adult and adolescent females (Freund & Costell, 1970).
      - The age of the teenage girls who were involved in these pregnancies ranged from ages 12–16 years (15%); 17 years (17%); 18 years (32%); and 19 years (36%) (Anda et al, 2002).
        
        19% of men had been involved in a teen pregnancy. Mean male age at the time of pregnancy was 20.6 years, 58% were at least 20 years old when the pregnancy occurred.
      - Adults, not peers, are fathers in most "school-age" childbirths. Among elementary and junior high school mothers ages 11-15, more than half the fathers are post-high school adult men (Males, 1993).
      - Among California senior high-age mothers, ages 16-18, 76% of fathers are post-high school adult men averaging 22 years old and ranging in age (95% interval) from 17-31 years (Males, 1993).
      - Paedophilia
        
        The ICD-10 defines paedophilia as “A sexual preference for children, boys or girls or both, usually of prepubertal or early pubertal age” that persists for at least six months (Mohnke et al, 2014).
        
        ‘‘non-pathological sex criminal’’ a 47-year-old man ‘‘of hard-working peasant stock’’ who resided with a 15-year-old girl. The girl, Pollens explained, was ‘‘mature for her age,’’ and the couple loved each other and intended to marry (Franklin, 2010).
      - Hebephilia
        
        A hebophilie is a person who gains sexual gratification from contact with children aged between 14-17 years (Blanchette & Coleman, 2002) (McCartan, 2008).
        
        In the U.S. and Canada, men are just as likely to end up in a forensic sample for fondling, oral sex with pubescent girls, chatting sexually with them online, looking at erotic pictures of them, or even reading erotic stories about them—as they are for vaginal intercourse (Franklin, 2010).
        
        15% were exclusively attracted to the pubescent body age. 85% showed mixed attraction. 95.4% reported having sexually abused children and/or having used child abusive images at least once in their lifetime (Anda et al, 2002)
- - - - Smith, C., Strohschein, L., & Crosnoe, R. (2018). Family histories and teen pregnancy in the United States and Canada. Journal of Marriage and Family, 80(5), 1244-1258.
        Teenage pregnancy, family change, and poverty were more common in the U.S. In the U.S., only multiple experiences of instability and poverty were associated with greater risk of teenage pregnancy, but, in Canada, any experience of childhood disadvantage was associated with elevated risk.
      - Bissell, M. (2000). Socio-economic outcomes of teen pregnancy and parenthood: A review of the literature. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 9(3), 191.
        Research suggests that women who have teen pregnancies are more likely to live more disadvantaged lives when compared to women who put off having children. This research also shows a correlation between socio-economics but not a causation for teen pregnancies. Many other factors are at play here. However, the problems in being a teen mum can only be fixed by helping the root cause which is the socio-economics.
- - - - Same reference. In Western societies, harshness (age-specific rates of morbidity-mortality in the environment) is connected to SES, suggests lower levels of SES are related to nearly all forms of morbidity and mortality.
    - - Same reference. Policies aimed at teenage pregnancies/supporting teen mothers should focus on the instability in pre-conception environment, rather than blaming teen pregnancy on sexual naivety or reproductive accidents.
    - - Same reference. Poverty precedes pregnancy & deprivation, risk & poverty are often fundamental parts of a teenage mother's life for years before she becomes pregnant.
      - Same reference. To reduce number of teen mothers, a LH approach suggests policies need to focus on the reduction of inequality in the poorest areas, & on providing support for those living in unstable family situation.
      - Same reference. 'Band-aid' solutions of improved contraceptive services & sex education although important for healthy sexuality, will not be enough to change the reproductive behaviours of those who see no future for them-selves, not just because they have a lack of aspiration, but because they believe the future they face is poor.
      - Same reference. Evolutionary LHT suggests that until antecedents of teen parenthood are accounted for in policy decisions, there will continue to be a high rate of adolescent childbearing.
  - - - girls who mature early are more likely to engage in early substance use and sexual intercourse and therefore are at higher risk of teen pregnancy.
      - The early- timing hypothesis: early maturing girls will be less prepared cognitively or emotionally for the transition especially if their peer group are not experiencing this at the same time. they are more likely to have older friends, attract attention form the other gender. this means they are more likely to engage in behaviours that are typical of older adolescents. this explains why they are more at risk of teen pregnancy.
  - - - It seems as though humans are evolving to have even slower life history. Reproducing later, finding partners later, living longer, having fewer children. This may be due to the ageing population, humans are simply living longer so are not in as much of a rush to reproduce.
        Is this why then that social norms and opinions on teen pregnancies have changed over the years. For past generations, it was expected for a woman to create a family almost as soon as their bodies would allow, and to have many children. but now it is very much frowned upon.