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Week 5 Collapse and break up of the Soviet Union - Coggle Diagram
Week 5
Collapse and break up of the Soviet Union
Why did the Soviet Union collapse?
international context: was trying to keep up with Western military and this was costly especially when oil prices collapsed
Domestic challenges e.g. internal contradictions in command economy led to economic collapse
political reasons: bureaucratic system became barrier to reforms
societal resistance - no base for economic reform and societal disillusionment
nationality question: nationalist forces in republics mobilise against the centre
role of leaders: Gorbachev vs Yeltsin: a Shakespearian tragedy between 2 leaders
ill thought out reforms or attempting to un reform?
Why was reform of the USSR necessary?
outdated economy: rapid mobilisation and growth 1930-60 but since 70s the command system unable to respond to changing needs and it needed mobilisation
the West was moving forward to more communication based economies
the USSR still relied on heavy industry and was still in the extensive mode of economic growth since 1930s
growing demand for consumer goods since people were more affluent and had more money but didn't know where to spend it
the economy was not responsive to the changing needs of society
economic stagnation
Military overspend: unable to match US arms spending
comminist bloc: Soviet bloc states no longer security asset but economic liability; USSR over extended - supporting communist regimes all over the world
not just econommic stagnation- political too under Brezhnev: nomenklatura turns gerontocracy and youth becomes cynical and instrumental
national policy: failure to suppress national identity and to create the 'soviet people' was leading to increasing tensions
Challenges with reform
no blueprint because the soviet union was an experiment
no halfway house or balance between command economy and market
to tinker with soviet system - not enough and the gap between the proclaimed reality and the actual state of affairs had grown too great
need for thorough going modernisation
Aspects/Stages of Reforms: 1985-1991
to lift the country out of its wide spread lethargy, Gorbachev focused on 3 areas:
Economic reforms (Perestroika)
the incorporation of a degree of private profit motive into the Soviet plan economy
Political opening (Glasnost- openness)
to discuss the problems and solutions openly
public deliberations, publishing forbidden books etc
political prisoners released from the Gulag 1988
Democratisation (Demokratizatsiia) 1989-91
attempts to introduce an element of pluralism into Soviet politics
role of the party and ideoloy
but the nationality question and saving the union - cropped
Sequencing of economic and political reforms:
halfway house between centrally planned market economy - a viable option?
economic reform without political reform challenging (recognised by Gorbachev)
Perestroika undermined stability of the centralised system
system of controls relaxed - difficult if not impossible to retain key features of regime:
censorship and coericion
party monopoly and control over public life
but what if the party opposed the reforms from the top?
communist party became conservative
Why was reform of the Soviet Union so difficult?
vested economic and political interests to keep the system going despite stagnation - support for the status quo
resistance from CPSU
societal support for reforms due to rising living standards yet were they willing to take risk
political culture/societal resistance/indifference?
Solnick: komsomol: passivity, cynicism
nationality question: republics pushing for sovereignty
ultimately, was the USSR reformable?
change was needed
general consensus that reforms were needed
no agreement on the causes of the collapse of the soviet systme
explaining the causes of perestroika is easier and far less contentious as well as different from explaining the collapse of the soviet system
Gorbachev's reforms: content and impact of Political reforms
what and how to reform?
institutional innovation 1990
opposition to reform
Gorbachev's winter alliance 1990/91
draft union treaty
Gorbachev: an appraisal - the party, union and economic reform
Political Content of reform
Perestroika, glasnost and democratisation
institutional reform: new institutions and pluralism
key moment in development of reforms: 19th party congress (summer 1998) - creation of congress of people's deputies (CPD)
semi competitive elections in March 1989 where non party people were elected
then more rapid institutional changes 1990-91
Congress of People's Deputies (CPD)
3 chamber legislature 1989
2 chambers (soviet of the union and the soviet of nationalities ) to be chosen in multi candidate elections
drawbacks: elections controlled by electoral commissions dominated by Party and two tier structure made the democratic element questionable
benefits: elections process, new parliament (separate centre of power) and real forum for debate
Problems with CPD
was it a major step towards democratisation of the soviet state?
first elections in March 1989: a number of communist officials defeated, 400 democrats elected out of total of 2250 CPD deputies
for 1st time forum for lively political debate: reformist legislation was passed, e.g. new laws on freedom of conscience, religious belief
but new structures constrained by Gorbachev's desire to protect the party and maintain its leading role
Opposition to reform
conservatives: party loss of status, economic bureaucrats, ideological
radicals: Gobrachev not going far enough and was just tinkering with the system
the people: economic reforms as violation of social contract - fear of unemployment, inflation, lower wages, losing work and privileges etc
unfolding economic crisis occuring
Yeltsin: Soviet nomenklatura?
member of the party nomenklatura
rose through its ranks
became a regional first secretary in one of the regional committee by 1970s
joins central committee 1985
worked in Russian SFSR only
Brezhnev stopped rotating nomenklatura between republics
initial supporter of perestroika and Gorbachev
soon criticised Gorbachev as too moderate: calling for a transition to multi-party representative democracy
resigns from Politburo 1987 - first ever resignation
Yeltsin: from Soviet to Russian politician
becomes popular anti-establishment politician and used republican avenues in political struggle
republican institutions in the Russian SFSR
elected chair of the Russian Supreme Soviet 1990
declaration of sovereignty by Russian SFSR (June 1990)
proclaimed the sovereignty of the Russian SFSR and the intention to establish a democratic constitutional state within a liberalised soviet Union
Russian presidency created March-June 1991
elected president of the Russian SFSR (June 1991) - 58%
first ever presidential elections
popular mandate unlike Gorbachev
Yeltsin represented Russia within USSR
1990-1991: the beginning of the end
Gorbachev creates 'executive presidency'
elected by congress of people's deputies as president of USSR march 1990
march 1990 - article 6 of constitution abolished ('leading role of the party)
July 1990 - 28th party congress - Gorbachev makes concessions to conservatives (Yeltsin leaves the party)
Winter 1990-91: Gorbachev appoints hard liners to government posts
e.g. Boris Pugo, Gennady Yanaev
Dec 1990: foreign minister, Shevardnadze resigns (warns of emerging dictatorship)
Why did Gorbachev move to conservative camp?
conservative, hard liners seemed to have upper hand
fear of dissolution of the soviet union
collapse of economy and threat of unrest (Gorbachev opts for stability and support from old establishment)
massive pressure on Gorbachev from military and KGB to call for state of emergencty
by spring 1991, Gorbachev distances himself - the 'Winter alliance' with the hardliners and reactionaries ends
but the hardliners are not ready to give up
1991 the 'Union question'
the USSR relied on divisive, coercive and integrative measures
granting symbolic presence to the republics while insisting on supremacy of central state (unstable stable compromise)
possibility of republic level institutions becoming bases of autonomy
unintended consequences of the SNP:
republic institutions as an alternative power springboard
political pluralism, freedom of expression and economy
nationalism re-emerges in late 1980s to claim sovereignty had been promised
Soviet Republics: Elite Co-optation 1920-1985
republican (national) communist elites
access to power and privileges 'stake in the soviet systmem'
close to monitoring and punishment of nationalist tendancies
more responsive to the centre (all union institutions) than republican constituencies
1990-91 From Perestroika towards Sovereignty
weakening of the centre (Moscow)
republican communist elites embrace the4 concept of sovereignty: want more autonomy from Soviet leadership and more political and economic control
Russian and Ukrainian Supreme Soviets: declarations of sovereignty July 1990
Ukraine: focuses mainly on greater economic within the USSR
Russia focuses on greater economic and political pluralism
Gorbachev: Referendum for a New Union 1990-91
political liberalisation - impact outside Moscow/ Russia
political demands for greater autonomy and political power from the republics
Gorbachev realises a necessity for a new agreement with republics in order to preserve the Soviet Union
Referendum 17 March 1991
'do you consider it necessary to preserve the USSR as a renewed federation of equal sovereign republics in which the human rights and freedoms of any nationality will be fully guaranteed?'
76% say yes
6/15 refuse to hold referendum (Baltic republics, Moldova, Georgia, Armenia)
Draft Union Treaty July 1991
voluntary membership
republican sovereignty
devolved taxation
limited central bodies (no all union parliament)
armed and security forces subject to republican scrutiny
all union ministries to become smaller co-ordinating bodies
this was very radical and Gorbachev's sense of desperation to give so much to the republics
The 1991 Coup
August 1991 conservatives carry out a coup against Gorbachev (whilst he is on holiday at Black sea resort)
coup fails but not just as the coup leaders and conservatives that are defeated
Gorbachev returns to Moscow a weakened leader - to a different country
Yeltsin becomes a key Russian political leader
The 1991 coup & a new Union treaty
Gorbachev's draft union treaty never enacted
republics proclaim independent (Ukraine 1991, yet no referendum in Russia)
1st Dec 1991: 3 leaders (Russian, Belarus, Ukraine) abolished USSR
replaced by Commonwealth of independent states
institutional time bomb goes off: Yeltsin (Russia) outbids Gorbachev (Soviet Union)
End of the Road: Russian SFSR vs Soviet Union
the supreme Soviet of the RSFSR 12 Dec 1991 which ratifies the Belovezha Accords and denounced the 1922 Union treaty
did the largest Soviet republic secede from the union?
Yeltsin argued that it was not possible to secede from a country that no longer existed because the 1922 union treaty was denounced
Yeltsin outmanoeuvred Gorbachev 'killing' the USSR as a 'collateral damage'
The Coup
Yeltsin wants democratisation and market reforms and Gorbachev he felt was not going far enough
Yeltsin organised a popular movement in Moscow against the coup and presented himself as the main saviour of Gorbachev
Yeltsin defends the institutions and does mass opposition to the coup
he saves Gorbachev in so many ways yet also undermines him as he results as the popular leader
How did it affect Gorbachev's political position and plans?
draft treaty lost support
the coup undermined the idea of the soviet union as a whole
How did it contribute to the disintegration of the USSR?
it wasn't predestined
there was a referendum in the Spring for it to stay
the coup discredited the soviet union
Yeltsin pushed for independence
Yeltsin was prepared to sacrifice the USSR
Explaining the collapse
What did Gorbachev want to do?
engender economic reform
preserve the party
preserve the union
all this against an increasingly difficult international context
Role of international factor
US refusal to follow Gorbachev's lead on nuclear arms reduction
US support for mujahedeen in Afghanistan. draining Soviet resources
US support for East European opposition movements e.g. Solidarity in Poland
1989 revolutions and end of communism in the satellite states (Example for the non-Russian republics)
US encouragement of oil exporting countries to reduce revenue therefore reducing Soviet revenue
soviet military and imperial overstretch
Engendering Economic Reform
'not for economics that the General secretary won the nobel price' - Gerasimov
inhoerent mix of command economy and market
creation of partial market economy incompatible with soviet system? which was based on centralisation, hierarchy and party monopoly
was a fundamental change needed and was it possible to implement?
Perestroika based on middle way between capitalism and communism - ended with neither
incoherent mix of command and economy market: price reforms delayed because fear of price rises causing social unrest
without tackling problem of party's monopoly on power - reform on scale he wanted not possible but by then situation out of his hands
Gorbachev: Preserving the party
sought to preserve dominance of party yet inherent contradiction: between move to pluralist society and representative democracy on one hand and continuation of one party rule on another
inability to reform CPSU to convert it into instrument of reform - main reason for failure of perestroika and reforms because rather than a vanguard party it was an obstacle to change in 1980s
Gorbachev talked about renewal of party's role and an enhancement of the role of the soviets: politics mutually incompatible, either power could go to CPSU or it could go to the soviets
For Gorbachev: union as an 'institutional time bomb'
Gorbachev failed to appreciate the national sentiments
during a visit to Ukraine, Gorbachev twice referred to the Soviet Union as 'Russia'
released Soviet political prisoners (anti-Soviet republican opposition elites
soviet special forces attack on protesters in Vilnius Lithuania 1991
Gorbachev and the union
underestimated the nationality question
Gorbachev just responded to a series of crises
dealt with nationalities question in piecemeal fashion
for him it was a distraction from economic restructuring, glasnost and democratisation
Gorbachev driven by desire to preserve the Soviet Union without understanding that the design of the Union was an 'institutional time bomb'
preservation of union - Gorbachev ultimate desire
Gorbachev and the collapse of the Union
«- - It was Yeltsin who emerged as the key leader
Gorbachev effectively marginalised as a result of the coup
union abolished by leaders of 3 republics in Belovyezha Forest Dec 1991
Russia, Belarus and Ukraine (3 core Slavic republics) decisive blow, legitimacy of the new system?
the soviet system led to the disintegration of the USSR e.g. why don't have one post-Soviet state
to be fair: all communist era federations collapse: building communism in multi-national states - doomed
How do we explain the collapse of the Soviet system - BIG QUESTION
Collapse: short vs long term factors
long/medium term factors:
economic stagnation
international competition - arms race, military spending
globalisation
rise of nationalism
short term factors
Gorbachev's policies
internal party divisions
the draft union treaty
the August Coup
Overarching explanations
modernisation theory/globalisation/third wave of democratisation/de-colonialism: at certain stage of economic and social development systems, inevitable move towards liberal democracy (Fukuyama) - the 'end of history argument' and Russian transition seen as part of global revolution (dictatorships and authoritarian systems struggle to isolate themselves from global trends
OR Belated collapse of the last empire in Europe e.g. The Habsburg or Ottoman empire collapses
Essentialist/Totalitarian explanation
totalitarian approach: inflexibility of system, built to withstand reform - collapse inevitable once radical reforms introduced
doomed attempt to reform the unreformable system
totalitarian approach also called the structural approach: inherent shortcomings in soviet system - command system unable to respond to increased and changed demands
Contingency theoretical explanations
USSR was not doomed
was not totalitarian by 1980s
it has evolved and had evolutionary potential
so it's collapse was not inevitable - it was accident/fate of choices made that need not have made
contingency/conjunctural approach:
system could have adapted to change - collapse attributed to contingent factors e.g.
Gorbachev's leadership and errors
strength of internal opposition
Yeltsin's opportunism
failure of West to grasp the issues and provide suitable aid
Not only how but why did the USSR collapse
rapid disintegration admist economic crisis of a complex, multi-national state
no time to prepare for the break up
no master plan for what comes after (politically, economically, internationally)
from USSR 'internal administrative' borders to state borders? (never meant to be 'real' border, e.g. Crimea
violent conflicts in many republics and Russia's role: Moldova, Georgia, Armernia etc
direct product of how the USSR discintegrated
Consequences of Rapid Disintegration
political disarray (new elites?)
economic disintegration, decline, hyperinflation
legitimacy of new states and their borders
new minorities
migration and dislocation
-what kind of inter-state relations after USSR? what role for Russa?
long term consequences of rapid collapse