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Chapter 6: Learning - Coggle Diagram

- - - - focused exclusively on objective, observable stimuli
    - - Behaviroural view is
        
        Far too limiting
        
        understanding learning requirs that we make inferences about hidden mental processes
- - - - by the stimuli that follow the response
  - - - The idea that responses that produced desirable responses would be learned, or "stamped" into the organism
      - Skinner rid the philosophy of subjective and unscientific speculation about the organism's feelings, intentions, or goals
  - - - A condition (involving the presentation or removal of a stimulus) that occurs after a response and strengthens that response
    - - A stimulus presented after a response and incresing the posibility of that response happening again
    - - The removal of an unpleasat or aversive stimulus, contingent on a particular behaviour
    - - A boxlike apparatus that can be programmed to deliver reinforcers and punishers contingent on an animals behaviour
      - Often called a "Skinner Box"
    - - Relationships between a response and the changes in stimulation that follow the response
    - - continuous reinforcement
        
        A type of reinforcement schedule by which all correct responses are reinforced
        
        used for shaping new complex behaviours
        
        An operant learning in which a new behaviour is produced by reinforcing responses that are similar to the desired responses
      - Intermittent reinforcement
        
        Type of reinforcement by which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced
        
        also called partial reinforcement
        
        Extinction
        
        A process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcements
    - - programs specifying the frequency and timing of reinforcements
      - ratio schedule
        
        A program by which reinforcement depends on the number of correct responses
      - interval schedule
        
        A program by which reinforcement depends on the time
    - - Fixed Ratio Schedules
        
        Programs by which reinforcement is contingent on a certain, unvarying number of responses
      - Variable ratio schedues
        
        reinforcement programs by which the number of responses required for a reinforcement varies from trial to trial
    - - Fixed Interval Schedules
        
        Programs by which reinforcement is contingent on a certain, fixed time period
      - Variable Interval Schedules
        
        Programs by which the time period between reinforcements varies from trial to trial
    - - Primary Reinforcements
        
        Reinforcers such as food and sex that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism
      - Secondary Reinforcers
        
        Stimuli such as money or tokens that acquire their reinforcing power by a learned association with primary reinforcers
      - Token economy
        
        therapeutic method
        
        based on operant condition
        
        under which individuals are rewarded with tokens, which act like secondary reinforcers. Tokens can be redeemed for a variety of rewards and priviledges
      - Premack Principle
        
        more preferred activity can be used to reinforce less-preferred activity
    - - Culture plays an important role in determining what acts as a reinforcer
        
        some people find eating crickets reinforcing, while others do not
        
        disposing of noisy cricket might be aversive for a Buddhist, while rewarding for a baptist
        
        game of cricket might be rewarding to British cricket fans, but boring to most Americans
- - - - Demonstrated by John Watson and Rosalie Rayner
      - Watson and Raynor presented Little Albert with a white rat and he showed no fear.
      - Watson then presented the rat with a loud bang that startled Little Albert and made him cry.
      - After the continuous association of the white rat and loud noise, Little Albert was classically conditioned to experience fear of rats
      - Albert's fear generalized to other stimuli that were similar to the rat, including a fur coat, some cotton wool, and a Father Christmas mask.
      - While Little Albert's fears were short lived, some fears can persist for years
        
        WWII sounds
  - - - previously neutral stimulus (food) is paired with uncontrolled stimulus (illness)
        
        Result: illness
  - - - Biological tendency in which an organism learns, after a single experience, to avoid a food with a certain taste if eating it is followed by illness
- - - - problem occurs by sudden means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions
  - - - A biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells
      - believed to be basis of learning
- - - - responses are involuntary
        
        behaviours elicited by stimulus
  - - - Responses are voluntary
        
        Behaviour is emitted by the organism
- - - - Neutral stimulus
        
        Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning
        
        When it is brought into a conditioned experiment, the researcher will call it a conditioned stimulus
        
        Assumption is that some conditioning occurs after even one pairing of the CS and UCS
      - Unconditioned Stimulus
        
        In classical condition, the stimulus that elicits and unconditional response
      - Unconditioned response
        
        In classical condition, the response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning
      - acquisition
        
        initial learning stage during which the conditioned response comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus
      - Conditioned stimulus Stimulus
        
        previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response
        
        In a conditioning experiment, the neutral stimulus is called a conditioned stimulus when first paired with an unconditioned stimulus
      - Conditioned Response
        
        In classical conditioning, a response previously elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus
      - Extinction and Spontaneous recovery
        
        Extinction
        
        the weakening of a conditioned response in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus
        
        Spontaneous recovery
        
        The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay
      - Pavlov's Experiment With Dogs
        
        researched salivation in dogs in response to being fed
        
        He inserted a small test tube into the cheek of each dog to measure saliva when the dogs were fed
        
        Pavlov predicted the dogs would salivate in response to the food placed in front of them, but he noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever they heard the footsteps of his assistant who was bringing them the food.
        
        When Pavlov discovered that any object or event which the dogs learned to associate with food would trigger the same response, he realized that he had made an important scientific discovery.
      - Generalization
        
        Stimulus Generalization
        
        The extension of a learned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned response
      - Discrimination Learning
        
        Stimulus Discrimination
        
        Change in response to one stimuli but not to stimuli that are similar
      - Conditioning and Experimental Neurosis
        
        Pattern of erratic behaviour resulting from a demanding discrimination learning task
        
        typically one that involves aversive stimuli
- - - - Application of an aversive stimulus after response
    - - removal of an appetitive stimulus after a response, leading to decrease in behaviour
    - - negative reinforcement you are increasing a behaviour whilst with punishment you are decreasing a behaviour
    - - society relies heavily on punishment to keep people in line
        
        put people in prison
        
        bad grades
        
        spanking
        
        parking tickets
      - produces immediate change in behaviour
        
        reinforcing to the punisher
      - Punishment doesn't work in the long run as well as punishers would like
    - - In limited circumstances punishment can work
        
        ex: self harm of autistic children
      - Punishment Should Be Swift
        
        Any delay decreases its effectivness
      - Punishment should be certain
        
        when bad behaviour goes unpunished, the unintended effect can be rewarding
      - Limited in duration and intensity
        
        Just enough to stop behaviour but appropriate enough to make the punishment fit the crime
      - Punishment Should Clearly Target the Behaviour
        
        Not character of the person
      - Punishment should be limited to the situation in which the response occured
      - Should not give mixed messages
      - The most effective punishment is usually omission training
        
        Such as loss of priviledges