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Biomolecules
Biomolecules include large macromolecules
Lipids
Structure of lipids
Lipids are non polar bonds that contain large amount of C-H areas.
Because they are Non polar they are hydrophobic meaning they do not dissolve in water
lipids are joined by ester bonds
ester bonds are formed between a glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acid molecules by dehydration synthesis(removing 3 H20's )
all contain C, H, and a little bit of O in their structures (very similar)
Most do not have ring structures
has fatty acid subunits (long chains of C and H with a carboxyl at one of the ends)
Fats and oils = triglycerides ( has 3 fatty acid subunits and 1 glycerol)
Types of lipids
oils, fats and waxes
phospholipids
fused- ring
Fats
Most fats come from animals and are saturated
Saturated means that they contain no double bonds and are surrounded by a lot of hydrogen
These chains (fatty acid chains) are straight and can come together to form a solid at room temperature
second choice of energy
Phospholipids
phospholipids are similar to oils but they have a phosphate groups instead of the one fatty acid chain.
One end is non polar because of the fatty acids chain (tail) and the other end is polar because of the phosphate-nitrogen group (head)
non polar end is attracted to cell membrane, which is also non-polar
Waxes
Waxes are not a food source
They are solids at room temperature (saturated)
most animals don't have the enzymes to break down waxers therefore they cannot be broken down
Fused-ring
steroids are made up of 4 fused rings of carbon with different function groups
cholesterol is a type of steroid
fused ring molecules can enter the cellular and nuclear membrane because they are non polar which means they attract to the non polar bonds of the those membranes
Oils
most oils come from plant seed and are unsaturated
unsaturated means that there are double bonds in the chain.
the double bonds produce "kinks" which cause it to be a liquid at room temperature"
second choice of energy
Functions of lipids
main component of cell/plasma membrane
long term energy storage
steroids act as hormones, which are chemicals produced in glands or other organs that travel through the bloodstream and exert their effects on other organs/ systems
waxes act as water proof covering for land plants, animals (furs and feather), and insect exoskeletons, used by bees to build beehives)
Monomers and Polymers
monomers= fatty acids and glycerol
polymers= diglycerides and triglycerides
Carbohydrates
Monomers and Polymers
Monomers:
monosaccharides- one ring
(glucose, fructose)
polymers:
disaccharides- 2 rings
(sucrose, lactose)
polysaccharides- more than 2 rings
(starch, glycogen, cellulose)
starch (storage= 1-4 linkage α- glucose)
cellulose (structural= 1-4 linkage β-glucose)
-cellulose polymers bond with one another to form fibers
Isomers
isomers contain the same molecular formula but have a different structure
ex. glucose, fructose,
galactose
Structures
Mostly Polar bonds
contain C, H, and O in a 1:2:1 ratio
Functions
short term energy storage- from disaccharides, especially in plants
long term energy storage in plants (starch)
quick energy- from hydrolysis and monosaccharides
support- found in cellulose (the cell walls of plants), fungi, bacteria, cornea of the eye, and joint fluid
strengthen external skeletons of insects, and crabs
other molecules in living things are partly made up of carbohydrates (hormones, nucleic acids, molecules in the plasma membrane, and mucous)
body's first choice of energy
Nucleic Acids
Monomer and Polymers
monomer:
-nucleotide
Polymer:
-RNA
-DNA
-Nucleic Acids
Structure
nucleotides contain N, P, C, H, and O
Each nucleotide contains:
:red_flag:a phosphate group
:red_flag:nitrogen containing bases- like adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil, and thymine
:red_flag:5-C sugars, which are RNA (ribose) and DNA (deoxyribose-one less oxygen than RNA)
DNA is double stranded
-in DNA the phosphate group of one nucleotide is covalently bonded with the sugars of another
-hydrogen bonds hold bases together
RNA is single stranded
DNA is more complex than RNA
Nucleic Acid Functions
DNA(universal code for protein making) - deoxyribonucleic acid, found in chromosomes
sequence of nucleotides are different in every species= unique code to synthesize proteins
made up of 2 nucleotide chains that twist to form a "double helix"
RNA ribonucleic acid, copies of DNA, carries genetic code from from nucleus to cytoplasm so that it can be read and so proteins can be synthesized
Cyclic AMP- intracellular messages that carry chemical signs
ATP- transports energy within cells, product of cellular respiration
ATP (Energy currency)
stands for adenosine triphosphate
slightly unstable covalent bonds hold the phosphate groups together
these bonds are unstable because the phosphate groups are negative (they repel)
Breaking these bonds releases energy that is used to power reaction in living things
these bonds are broken ATP Hydrolysis
proteins
Monomers and Polymers
Monomer:
-Amino Acid
Polymers:
-dipeptide (2)
-Peptide (3-50)
-polypeptide(50 or more amino acids)
-proteins (made up of one or more polypeptide)
Basic Amino Acid Structure:
Amino group
Hydrogen group
Carboxyl group
R-group (determines the characteristics of the amino acid
Primary and Secondary Structures
Primary Structure:
amino acids connected by peptide bonds
the Nitrogen in the Amino Group is bonded to the Carbon in the Carboxyl Group (dehydration Synthesis)
Secondary Structure:
formed by hydrogen bonds between the carboxyl group and amino groups of amino acids
alpha-helix structure- caused by hydrogen bonds formed between -C=O of carboxyl groups and H in the Amino groups of the same peptide
Beta pleated sheet- repeated folds caused when a peptide folds on itself and hydrogen bonds form when the folds sit parallel to one another (hydrogen bonds are holding adjacent parts of the peptide together)
Tertiary and Quaternary Structures
Tertiary Structure:
determined by the cellular environment
a protein dissolved in water folds so that the polar (hydrophilic) amino acids are on the outside and in contact with the water while the nonpolar (hydrophobic) amino acids are in the center.
The R group determines if the amnio acid is polar or non polar
tertiary structures can be bonded by polar bonds, nonpolar bonds, ionic bonds, and disulfide bridges
:!: Disulfide bridges are used to connect cysteines. Cysteines contain sulfur that forms these bonds with other sulfur molecules
Quaternary Structure:
in some proteins individual polypeptide chains are linked together
ex. hemoglobin is made by 4 polypeptide chains linked together by hydrogen bonds
Functions of Proteins
acts as enzymes (enzymes are required for all reactions in living things)
structural purposes (elastin: gives skin elasticity)
Keratin (in hair, horns, nails, skin)
Albumin and casein (necessary for development)
hemoglobin (transport oxygen in blood)
muscle movement (contractile proteins)
some hormones (insulin: regulates glucose levels)
make up antibodies ( fight disease and infections)
found in poisons ( rattlesnake venom)
The structure and function of proteins are determined by DNA
DNA determines the sequence of amino acids
DNA is the central dogma.
Denaturation
happens when the secondary, tertiary and sometimes primary structures of a protein are altered
the bonds break
can break permanently or temporarily
causes the protein not to function properly
can happen by:
-changes in temperature (increasing)
-changes in salinity
-changes in pH
When the temperature decreases the bonds don't break they are just temporarily inactivated (doesn't have flexibility)
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Isomer
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