The system consists of four main components, which are interrelated namely geosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and atmosphere.

Covers the land area of the Earth and also seabed

Geo means soil. Therefore, geosphere includes the rocks, minerals and soil found on the Earth

The part of the Earth that is made up of water such as rivers, lakes, oceans, ponds and groundwater, including freshwater, salt water, snow and glaciers.

Covers more than 70% of the Earth. 97.2% of the hydrosphere is salt water and 2.8% is freshwater.

The region on the Earth's surface that supports life such as humans, animals, plants and microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa

Can be divided into various ecosystems such as grassland, forest, mangrove swamp and desert. Each ecosystem is a habitat to various populations of animals and plants

Traps heat, making the Earth's temperature suitable for living things

Supplies oxygen gas for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis

Protects living organisms from genetic damage caused by harmful ultraviolet rays and cosmic radiations

Consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide and 0.97% inert gases and other elements

A layer of air with a thickness of 1000 km surrounding the Earth.

The higher the altitude, the lower the air pressure because the gravitational force becomes weaker as the altitude increase

Most of the scientists divided the Earth's atmosphere into 5 layers.

Is divided into layers according to altitude or known as atmospheric stratification

The temperature decreases with the increase in altitude from troposphere to mesosphere

The temperature increases with the increase in altitude from mesosphere to the thermosphere

It contains the most cloud. The changes of weather and climate take place here. All weather phenomena such as wind, rain, storm and snow occur in this layer

This layer supports living organisms such as humans, animals and plants

Has the highest air mass, causing it to have the highest air pressure

The layer that contains a lot of ozone gas and known as ozone layer is located here (altitude 18 - 38 km)

The coldest layer. The extremely cold temperature

The destruction of meteorites caused by the collision with gas particles takes place in this layer. This resulted in the phenomenon of shooting star or meteor

The phenomenon of aurora occurs in the layer. Aurora is a band of colourful lights, resulting from the magnetic field and atmospheric gases

The layer contains many ions (changes particles) that can reflect radio waves

The outermost and the furthest layer of atmosphere from the Earth's surface

The ocean is divided into a few layers known as zone. The zones differ based on the penetration of light (amount of light received)

This zone is suitable as a habitat for photosynthetic organisms. This zone supports living things

Water is shallow and light can penetrate into this zone

A habitat for large marine animals such as whales and giant octopuses

Animals in this zone get leftover food from the light zone or eat among themselves

Not enough light for photosynthesis process. Plants difficult to survive in this zone

Marine animals that live in this zone have fluorescent bodies that are able to glow in the dark

Water doesn't remain static at one place. The Earth's water supply always moves from one place to another in different forms

Water exists as water vapour in the air, rivers, lakes, glaciers and snow in the polar regions

96.5% of water on the Earth's surface is the ocean

About 71% of the Earth's surface is covered by water

The Earth is made up of 3 layers according to its physical characteristics with are the crust, mantel and core

The mantle consist of lithosphere, asthenosphere and mesosphere

Made up of layers of different types of hard rocks

Includes the brittle upper part of the mantle and the crust

Temperature at 1300c. High temperature and pressure causes the rocks to melt and become semi solids, enabling the lithosphere to float on this layer

Consists of semi-solids that are viscous and elastic

The rocks in mesosphere layer is extremely hot and can flow gradually due to the convection current of the mantle formed by the heat from the core of the Earth

Convection current in the outer core generated the Earth's magnetic field

Exists in the form of solid due to compression under high pressures

The Earth is the only planet that supports various living things from the tiniest organism such as microorganisms to the most complex organism, such as humans

The position of the Earth is not too near or too far from the Sun. Therefore, the temperature of the Earth is not too cold or too hot

The Earth has water that is vital for all ling things and living processes

The sunlight received by the Earth is enough for living things to survive because of the Earth ideal distance from the Sun. Green plants and producer organisms absorb sunlight to make food and release oxygen as a by-product through the photosynthesis process

21% of the air is oxygen gas. Oxygen is needed for respiration

0.03% of the air is carbon dioxide gas. Carbon dioxide is needed by green plants to carry out photosynthesis process.

Each group of rocks is formed by a different process and takes a very long time from thousands to millions of years to form

A coloured rock that depends on its mineral composition

Its texture and grain can easily be distinguished. For example, shale rock (fine grain) and conglomerate rock (pebble size grains)

A coloured rock that depends on its mineral composition

Minerals such as gold and silver can be found in this type of rock

Has foliated texture (the layers are either parallel or wavy

Very hard, Usually harder than the original rock that formed it

Formed by the process of cooling and freezing of magma or lava that flows out of the mantle

Formed by compression of deposited minerals carried by rivers, glasiers and wind

Formed when igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks are exposed to a very high pressure and temperature

The process of formation of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks can be explained using rock cycle

The cooling and freezing of magma in the Earth's crust produces igneous rocks. For example, granite, gabbro, basalt and purmice.

The same process happens to metamorphic rocks, which are embedded deeply into the Earth's crust that are exposed to hot magma. The metamorphic rocks will melt to form magma again and flows into the mantle due to the tectonic motion. The molten rocks will reform igneous rocks once again and the cycle continues

Sedimentation, compression and cementation of the sediments for millions of years will produce sedimentary rocks such as coal, limestone, shale, sandstone and conglomerate stone

Furthermore, the sedimentary rocks are embedded deeply into the Earth's crust and exposed to a high temperature and high pressure. Sedimentary rocks undergo physical and chemical changes to form metamorphic rocks. For example, limestone changes into marble, coal changes into diamond and sandstone into quartzites

The process of denudation such weathering and erosion, and the effect of weather and climate on the 3 types of rocks cause the rocks to break into pieces and form sediment

The study and knowledge about physical features of the Earth's surface such as the land, ocean and also the layers of the Earth.

Occurs on Earth cause the formation and changes in the surface of the Earth's crust

The geological process occurs on the surface of theEarth.

Driven by exogenic force that originate from the Earth's surface or outside the Earth's surface ( atmosphere ).

The gravitational force of the moon causes the formation of waves and the phenomena of tides and the tidal in the ocean that can erode beaches and high cliffs along the beaches.

The collision of meteoroid onto the surface of the Earth changes the landforms

The radiation from the Sun causes the movement of water, ice and air. The movement of air forms wind, which is the main agent in the exogenic processes such as erosion and weathering.

The wearing away of the Earth's surface by agents of erosion such as water, wave and wind

The geomorphological process that changes the physical characteristics of rocks but does not change the chemical and biological characteristics of the rocks

Can also caused by human activities, the roots of plants that creep along and break the rocks and animals that dig the ground such as worms, rats and chipmunks

A process of fragmentation and decomposition of rocks on the Earth's surface into smaller pieces when exposed to physical, chemical and biological processes such as changes in temperature, rainwater, frost action and microorganism

The results of weathering are the landforms and landscapes such as limestone cave, stalactites and stalagmites

The process of movement of the Earth's materials down the slope by gravitational force

The Earth's materials from the highland areas are broken down by erosion and weathering agents, which results in the lowering of altitude of the highland areas

Examples of mass depletion are the movement of soils and rocks from the top of a slope and landslide phenomenon

Topographical and geological factors affect the rate of mass depletion

Water acts as a lubricant that helps to move or deplete the mass ( rocks and soils ) down the slope. Landslides and mass depletion often occur at slope areas during heavy rains

The movement of weathered or eroded materials from one place to another by the action of wind, water, waves, glaciers and force of gravity

The accumulation and deposition of eroded materials or sediment when the velocity of the weathering agents decreases

The same as the agents of erosion, weathering and mass depletion but their power and reaction rate are slower and weaker.

The geological process that occurs beneath the Earth's surface, which is driven by endogenic forces originated from within the Earth's crust.

Volcanic eruption is a phenomenon whereby hot magma from the Earth's core erupts to the surface of the Earth. The hot magma that flows out is known as lava.

Although the phenomenon of volcanic eruption is not direct cause in producing terrain topography, but the formation of volcanic rocks on the surface of the Earth's crust provides the site or surface for exogenic processes such as weathering, erosion and mass depletion that change the Earth's landforms

Lava cools and hardens to form two types of igneous rock, which are the intrusive rocks and plutonic rocks

Is formed as a result of heat action in the Earth's core on the rocks in the mantle

The hotter magma is less dense and moves upwards and is replaced by a cooler magma, which is denser that moves downwards.

The repetition movement of hot magma upwards and cool magma downwards forms mantle convection current

The theory of plate tectonic states that the Earth's crust is made up of several pieces of plates that glides over the mantle

These plates are hard and brittle rocks that float on the flowing magma in the mantle. Therefore, the plates glide like a layer of oil on the water. Observations from the researchers' data showed that the energy from the convection current causes the movement of the Earth's plate at a rate of 3cm.

The movement of the Earth's plates involves the process of collision and divergence of plates. Both processes produce various landforms and continental drifts.

In general, volcanic eruption occurs due to the magma beneath the Earth's crust being forced out by high pressure gases

The gas bubbles exert high pressure. The high pressure causes the magma to erupt out to the surface of the Earth. This volcanic eruption is called volcanism.

The earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the surface of the Earth's crust caused by sudden release of energy from within the Earth's crust in the form of seismic waves that move in between the layers of the Earth's crust

The sudden release of energy occurs when the tectonic plates meet and collide abruptly in the area of intersection of the tectonic plates and the fault lines.

This results in the destruction of many properties, roads, railways and airports.

The collapse of buildings and landslides due to earthquakes have caused many humans and animals to lose their lives.

Is known as seismic waves of the sea, which is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water.

The movement of plates and the collision of oceanic crust plates

A process of mass depletion caused by the instability of the mass of soil

The movement of the soil and rocks down the slope under the influence of gravity is due to the instability of the mass of soil and rocks, causing it to move to undergo a restructuring to become more stable

The process of landslides involves ground movements such as earth flow, soil movement, rockfalls, debris flows or mudflows and ice slides

The increase in the Earth's temperature globally due to greenhouse effect

A phenomenon where hear energy from the sunlight is trapped by the greenhouse gases in the lower layer of the Earth's atmosphere that causes warming of the Earth's surface.

The melting of ice and glaciers in Arctic, Greenland ad Antartica. This leads to an increase in the sea level

The oceans become warmer, destroying the planktons and affecting the food chain

The changes in the Earth's climate. The occurrence of the flood and drought becomes more frequent

Formed when acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen dissolve in water vapour in the atmosphere before falling to the Earth as acid rain in the form of nitric acid and sulphuric acid

When rocks melt into magma, their volume increases and becomes less dense than the rocks in the surroundings

The burning of fossil fuels such as petroleum and coal in power station, factories and motor vehicles releases sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide into the air

Open burning of non-biodegradable materials such as plastic releases sulphuric acid

Acid rain also occurs naturally through volcanic eruptions that release sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide gases

Reduces the fertility of soil and plants

Increases the acid content in the soil, making the soil infertile. This affects the yield of crops

Destroys the photosynthesis cells in the leaves. Thus, the leaves cannot carry out photosynthesis. The plants will wither and die

Aquatic ecosystem will be affected. Aquatic plants and planktons are destroyed due to the reduction in the pH values of the water in the lakes, rivers and oceans

Sinkholes are holes in the ground caused by the collapse of the surface of the ground

The occurrence of sinkholes is related to the types of rocks and soil and also underground water drainage

Sinkholes usually formed due to dissolution of rocks when there are water soluble rocks such as salt or gypsum, or sedimentary rocks containing carbonates, like limestone and dolomite

Quicksand forms in saturated loose sand when the sand is suddenly agitated.

When water in the sand cannot escape, it creates a liquefied soil that loses strength and cannot support weight and will suck down objects that fall into it

Quicksand usually occurs in areas with weak structure of soil such as spring, riverbanks, lakes, swamp or coastal areas.

A device used for recording seismic wave amplitude at a specific point above surface of the Earth.

Measures the earthquake magnitude using a graphical presentation called seismogram

Used to get information about the magnitude, depth and location of the earthquake and to predict the epicenter of the earthquake

installed in skyscrapers and bridges to absorb earthquake shaking

Decrease the risk of collapsing and damaging the buildings during earthquakes

Used to confirm the presence of tsunami waves due to the undersea earthquakes

Measures the change in the height of the water by measuring the changes in the water pressure. The information recorded by tsunameter is sent to tsunami buoy

By using this technology, the changes in sea level can be detected and this improves the capability of early detection of the tsunami before it hits the land

Tsunami buoy then sends the information to the tsunami warning center through satelites

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The chronological arrangement of geological events. It is used by geologists and Earth scientists to describe the relationship of events that have occurred during the history of the Earth

Used today in the 18th century and is continuously improved over the time. The geological time scale is considered as estimated real geological time made based on carbon dating using the oldest radiometric techniques and fossil age found in the layer of the rocks.

Is divided into four eras, namely cenozoic, mesozoic, paleozoic and precambrian.

Through study and research by modern scientists since the late 18th century, the Universe was formed about 13.7 billion years ago from a major explosion

Based on the research done by scientist and geologists using radiometric dating method, the age of the Earth is estimated about 4.6 billion, which is younger than the Universe

Used to determine the approximate age of a fossil by comparing the similar rocks and fossils of known ages. For example, by comparing the layers of rocks formed earlier and the layer of rock formed later.

Is less accurate because it dosen't show the age of the rock in the unit of time

Used to determine a precise age of a rock or fossil through the radiometric dating method

Uses radioactive decay properties of radioactive elements contained in the rock to determine the age of the rocks. This radioactive decay process occurs at a constant rage for each radioactive element. Due to this, we can use it to determine the age of the rocks and fossils

Radioactive elements are normally found in fossil embedded rocks

The common type of radioactive decay used by geologists in radioactive decay of carbon-14 into nitrogen-14

By comparing the remaining total amount of carbon-14 and the total amount of nitrogen-14 in a fossil, the age of the fossil can be determined

The remains or traces of organisms whether plants or animals that lived in the past which were naturally preserved in the rocks

Most fossil is found embedded in sedimentary rocks such as limestones, sandstone and shale

Found in the form of skeletons or animal bones, shells, leaves and plant woody parts that have been preserved or in the form of footprints or animal trail only.

The process of fossil formation takes a very long time, which may reach to million of years

Fossils are discovered when the rocks that contain fossils are exposed by natural weathering processes and human exploration activities.

The fossil record explains the biodiversity of prehistoric organisms, including all animals, plants and microorganisms that ever existed

The fossil record becomes a guideline on the history of living organisms on the Earth

The fossil record provides information about species that have become extinct

Through carbon dating on fossils, the age of an area or historical remains can be determined

Surface runoff formed when rainwater could not seep into the soil because the soil is saturated with water due to rainfall exceeding the rate of soil absorption

Rainwater sweeps into the soil and some flows on the surface of the Earth or slopes as surface runoff

Water found on the surface of the Earth such as ponds, lakes, swamps, rivers and seas

Surface water can be polluted by waste materials that are released into the rivers, lakes and seas from residential and industrial areas

Surface water near agricultural areas is polluted due to the use of excessive fertilisers and pesticides

Besides pollution, surface water is also at the risk of getting dry. This may be caused by drought due to global climatic change as well as the phenomenon of global warming

Natural water catchment areas such as lakes may be destroyed due to unplanned land development

Originated from water that falls to the ground such as rain or snow that seeps into the soil

The depth of land where the layer of the underground water started varies, depending on the thickness and location of the layer of soil above it

Is water found in the layer beneath the surface of the ground

Soil and most rocks are porous, causing water to absorb into it. When the soil and rocks are saturated, they cannot absorb water anymore. The stagnant there. The underground water stagnant is also known as an aquifer.

May experience vaporisation due to the heat of magma in the Earth's mantle, causing it to burst into steam and gushes spraying and spurting, hot water within the Earth also comes out as hot springs

Springs are formed when the pressure in the aquifer causes some water to flow out to the surface of the Earth.

a. Humans have been using underground water for thousands of years and are still using it until now, as a drinking water source and for irrigation activities

Rapid urbanisation activities have resulted in the increase of domestic waste disposal and sewage discharges into the rivers that may affect the water quality and thus causing underground water pollution

Rapid industrial activities increase plant waste discharges into water sources and cause sleeping of polluted water into the soil.

Agricultural activities such as excessive use of fertilisers and pesticides cause pollution of underground water sources with high sulfate and phosphate content

A rare earth mineral contains one or more rare earth elements as main metal components

Economic minerals are materials that have economic values. Economic minerals consist of metallic minerals, non-metallic minerals, and rare earth minerals

The main materials that form the Earth and other planets. Minerals are inorganic solid compounds that are formed naturally

Are found naturally in the Earth's crust as metal ores such as tin ore (cassiterite), iron ore (hematite), pyrite, lead ore (galena) and aluminum ore (bauxite) or found as free metals such as silver and gold

Include mineral fuels such as petroleum, natural gas and coal

Other examples of non-metallic minerals are sand, limestone, granite, quartz, kaolin and marble

Examples of fossil fuels. Petroleum and natural gas are formed from decaying organic matter such as phytoplankton residues and the remains of animals and plants that lived millions of year ago.

The decayed organic matter is mixed with mud and buried under heavy layers of sediment

Under extremely high heat and within hundreds of years of millions of years, the sediment of organic waste residues transform into petroleum and natural gas

Fuels for vehicles, for making solvent, plastic and soap

For coating cans, making cans, welding electronic devices

Formed from the remains of plants (trees, ferns, and mosses) that lived millions of years ago in swampy areas

Organic waste materials from the dead plants experienced high pressure and heat due to the pressure exerted by the buried sediment on them and turned them into coal

The hot spring area can also become a recreational park and this is a potential attraction of eco-tourism. For example, hot spring in Sungai Klah, Perak and hot spring in Poring, Kundasang, Sabah

Hydrothermal sources that have low to medium temperatures (20c - 150c) are used to supply direct heating to homes, commercial buildings and industries

Steam from hot spring and geysers is used to rotate the turbine to generate electricity

commonly occurs near sources of heat in the Earth's crust such as near the volcanoes. An example of hydrothermal is underground hot water that spurts out geysers and hot springs

Circulation refers to the circulation of hot water from the hot rock area to a cold rock area in the Earth's crust

Related to the action of hot water in the Earth's crust. 'Hydro' means water and 'thermal' means temperature