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Glaciers Revision - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Exports of oil and gas are the biggest contributor to GDP, but there are debates about exploration in the Arctic for more oil
      - Currently no oil or gas drilling on or near Svalbard, but it is thought that a third of all resources around the region
      - One of the world's largest exporters for gas and oil, though most of the country's electricity is produced through hydroelectricity
      - There are numerous mineral deposits onshore and on the ocean bed that could be exploited, which would be less controversial. Estimated value of USD100 billion
    - - 90% of Norway's catch volume comes from stocks in zones shared with other countries
      - 200 nautical mile zone around Svalbard claimed as an exclusic economic zone
      - Second largest contributor to GDP
    - - Students study geophysics, arctic biology, geology and arctic technology
      - New Research Centre built in hopes of increasing enrolment
      - 1993, Norwegian universities opened a University Centre on Svalbard, which draws in 300 students per year
      - British Antarctic Survey have a research station there, and Russia, Norway and Poland run permanent research stations
      - Generally focuses on weather and meteorology
    - - Satellite receiving station that has had a lot of investment from NASA, NOAA and ESA
      - One of two stations globally which can receive data from low orbiting polar satellites
    - - Permafrost and thick rock ensure the seeds stay frozen even without power
      - The area is geologically stable and humidity levels are low. The vault is well above sea level
      - World's largest collection of crop diversity
  - - - Important to resident population and visitors who expect hot showers and warm rooms
      - Pipes need to be kept off the ground to prevent any potential thawing
      - Services include water, sanitation and electricity
      - Mitigation through the design of services
      - Adaptation of people in their behaviours -- using saunas and hot showers
    - - There is one airport near to Longyearbyen, which receives flights from Norway and Russia, as well as smaller aircraft to other islands
      - 50km of road in Longyearbyen but no smaller roads to serve outside communities
      - Svalbard can be reached by plane or ship -- most all transport is centred around Longyearbyen
      - Most people use snowmobiles
      - Adaptation by not travelling far from Longyearbyen or other small settlements
      - Mitigate by using appropriate methods of transport
    - - Resilience against the cold with people's attitude
      - Mitigation through the use of appropriate clothing
      - Winter temperatures can reach -30°C, so people have to wear warm layers
    - - Mental health
        
        Depression is a seasonal affective disorder -- overcome by a tight knit community
        
        Show resilience by forming a tight knit community, increasing their social behaviours particularly in the winter
      - Mobility problems due to heavy clothes
        
        People adapt to stretch their muscles and ligaments
      - Potential problems with sleeping patterns
        
        Mitigate using blackout curtains in the summer and 'artificial' light in the winter
        
        Can have psychological impact
      - Health care
        
        Provided on the mainland
        
        Elderly residents or those who need care may permanently move to the mainland
        
        It is prohibited to die in the Arctic because the bodies can't decompose
    - - People adapt by unlocking their front doors
      - Mitigate by taking a rifle everywhere
    - - Employment always offered on a contract basis
      - Lower income tax than on the mainland
      - Employment opportunities in Longyearbyen limited
    - - AECO -- aims for an environmentally responsible cruise operation, giving visitors a set of guidelines to minimise impacts
      - Idea of eco-tourism developed to maintain sustainability
      - Erosion of the tundra, litter, pollution and disturbance
    - - Increased risk of landslides, flooding and coastal erosion
      - Reduced temperature for global seed vault
      - Melting permafrost
      - Change in fish species
      - Decomposing bodies in graveyard
      - Increased opportunity for fishing as ice pack melts
      - Reduced ice pack means potential exploitation of oil and gas and transport routes open up
- - - - Low precipitation (no more than 100mm a year)
      - Clearly defined seasons -- cold summers and even colder winters
      - Temperatures never normally above 10°C, winters below -40°C
    - - Most ground covered in ice, but when exposed, soil is thin and nutrient-poor
      - Usually a layer of permafrost
      - Very few plants -- lichens, mosses and grasses in warmer areas
  - - - Cold and low precipitation levels -- below 380mm
      - Clearly defined seasons -- brief, mild summers and long, cold winters
    - - Plants grow slowly and not very tall (mostly grasses)
      - Small trees may grow in warmer, sheltered areas
      - Nearer the poles, only mosses and lichen can survive
  - - - Valley glaciers -- fill valleys and can be several km long
      - Corrie glaciers -- smaller glaciers found in bowl-shaped hollows, high up in mountains
    - - High snowfall
      - May be warm enough in summer for meltwater to affect glaciers
      - Temperatures cold enough for ice year round
    - - Covered by ice permanently, so no exposed soil
      - Very few plants, though algae and moss may grow in the summer
  - - - Temperature decreases as altitude increases
      - Cold winters but summers may be mild
      - Snowfall can be high
    - - When ice melts, soil may be exposed (in periglacial areas)
      - In glacial areas, the ground is permanently covered by ice and snow
      - Seasonally exposed soil means plants can grow e.g. grasses and flowers