Merriam-Webster Definition: A major political unit that controls an extensive amount of land, and thus many different peoples under one power, most often having an emperor as the head of state; the different territories controlled by this power.

Millets: Self-governing non-Muslim communities in the Ottoman Empire that could regulate themselves. They collected their own taxes, established their own schools and enacted their own laws. In return for religious freedom and relative autonomy, individuals in millets owed complete loyalty to the Ottoman government, and in some cases, certain millets had to pay taxes.

Devshirme System: A system used from the 14th-late 17th century that required Christian communities in the Ottoman empire to send their sons to the Ottoman government, where they'd directly serve the state. These young men were required to take a series of tests, as well as math, calligraphy, Islamic studies and weaponry classes. Many graduates of the program got jobs as guards, scribes and gatekeepers, but some of them served in an elite part of the Ottoman military, known as the Janissary corps, an elite military body that helped the Ottoman Empire expand its territory. While some of the men from the system were able to acquire some wealth, they couldn’t pass it down to their children. Over time, the system died out, since Ottoman soldiers preferred enlisting their sons into the army, and by 1648, the practice of rounding up Christian youths for the army was stopped.

Janissary corps: An elite corps in the Ottoman Empire from the late 14th century to 1826. The corps was originally made up of graduates of the previously mentioned Devshirme system (see above). This military body was highly respected during the 15th and 16th centuries, and became an influential political power inside the Ottoman state. Members of the corps were well-known for their adeptness in archery, but by the 16th century had developed into a strong firepower body. Despite the system's advantages, the Janissaries’ political influence took a toll on the Ottoman government. During the reign of Bayezid II, the corps demanded extra money in return for their support. The corps’ servicing costs became too expensive for the empire, which further strained the relationship between the Janissaries and the sultan. After Osman II tried to control the corps by cutting their pay, they assassinated him, after which the Janissaries conducted several overthrows.

Fratricide: The Law of Fratricide was a law enacted by the sultan Mehmed the Conqueror that made legally valid a time-honored Ottoman practice. This practice made it such that the eldest son did not immediately ascend the throne, but that possible successors had to battle each other for it. So, when the sultan passed, the princes entered a cutthroat competition for power, knowing if he didn't get the crown, his brother that did would likely end his life. As a result of this practice, Mehmed had all nineteen of his brothers strangled, the youngest of which was only eleven. This practice exposes the sultan's weakness, for since any living brother could be an heir, any living brother was viewed as a threat, and hence an advantage to the powerful Janissaries. Despite this practice's evident immorality, it did put a stop to hereditary ruling, which occurred all throughout the rest of Europe. In the process, this helped prevent infighting and likely prevented large-scale wars that occurred in other parts of Europe when a king died without successors.

While empire-builders in Europe could be "extremely destructive", empires also made the world much more connected (as seen via trade routes and strong business relationships), such that one practice in one empire could benefit a different practice in another empire. (Empires in World History by Jane Burbank and Frederick Cooper)

"Competing empires had to devise new repertoires of power. Innovations in shipbuilding, navigation, and weapons were crucial tools; trading areas, company monopolies, plantations, and colonies of settlement became staples of overseas empires." (Empires in World History by Jane Burbank and Frederick Cooper)

This book was written by S.M. Ikram, who was a member of the Pakistan Civil Service, as well as a Visiting Professor of International Affairs at Columbia University. He wrote several books about the history of Islam in India, and was the co-editor of The Cultural Heritage of Pakistan.

Ikram wrote this book -- which is about the political and cultural history of Muslim India and Pakistan -- to call attention to the fact that in the past, the study of Muslim civilization primarily focused on Arab nations, sometimes expanding to Iran or Ottoman Turkey. In consequence, he underscores that there is a need to investigate the Muslim history of modern-day nations such as Pakistan and Indonesia.

The Mughals had a very low customs tax (no more than 2%). Indian exports were, for the most part, manufactured goods (especially cloth, which was demanded in Europe and in time, by half the world [the east coast of Africa, Arabia, Egypt, Southeast Asia in addition to Europe]). Indigo, spices, saltpeter, sugar, borax, many types of drugs and other items were also exported. The principal imports included coral, bullion, horses, raw silk and amber. Indian merchants often demanded to be paid in silver or gold, which caused many Europeans to complain. Yet, since Indian goods were so valuable, Europeans were willing to abide by India’s trade rules until the 18th century, when actions were taken in Europe and in other places to dissuade the call for Indian goods. As India’s textile industry -- well established in the times of Akbar -- prospered which, through the actions of Dutch + English traders, brought India into direct contact with western markets. Other industries in India included shawl and carpet weaving, woolen goods, pottery, leather goods and wooden articles. And while the mercantile side of the industry was controlled by middlemen, the empire played its own role. In fact, the emperor himself controlled many a royal workshop, which created articles for his use, and the use of his family, the court and the army. He oversaw silk factories, and imported craftsmen from all over the empire, and from different parts of the world. Akbar often dropped by the workshops near the palace, which motivated the craftspeople and upped their status. Over time, foreign traders established close agreements with important Indian markets, and thus new articles demanded in Western Europe started to be made in higher quantities.

The fact that the Mughals had such a low tax on trade probably made merchants more likely to trade with the empire again, which likely helped increase profit and strengthen business relationships. Their wide variety of manufactured items that were deemed valuable and “exotic” in the West was definitely a bonus. Their textile industry, which flourished with the help of high demand in Europe and direct access to Western markets, especially helped India acquire significant profit, as well as renown for their craftsmanship. In addition, the fact that the Mughal emperor (Akbar especially) was so involved in trade often motivated craftspeople to work harder, which likely resulted in even more profit. Yet, Indian merchants’ insistence on being paid in silver or gold ended up hurting the Indian trading industry in the long run, as in the 18th century, actions were taken in Europe and in other places to dissuade the call for Indian goods.

Emperor: The emperor was at the top of this pyramid. still held divine status and was, by law, the head of state, but all of the real power was in the hands of the shogun (the shogun supposedly served as a regent for the emperor).

Shogun: The shogun was the de facto head of state (although the shogun was supposedly only in power thanks to the emperor’s permission). He ruled over many feudal lords called daimyo, who controlled small domains called han; there were roughly 250 of these throughout the shogunate’s history, though that number often changed. Domains were ranked by the amount of rice they could produce per year, not by land size.

Daimyo: The daimyo were divided into three ranks: shinpan, fudai and tozama. The shinpan were the highest rank. They were relatives of the Tokugawa family who ruled over large domains. The second highest rank were the fudai daimyo, who came into existence when Tokugawa Ieyasu, after unifying Japan, rewarded his liegemen and allies by making them daimyo. The fudai were trusted by Tokugawa rule and their domains were placed around important features like trade routes .They were also very prominent in politics. Roju officials, or Elders, were the most highly ranked government employees in the shogunate, and worked closely with the shogun himself. Only fudai daimyo could join the council of Roju (the council was very small, having only three, four or five people on it, depending on the time period). The tozama daimyo were the lowest ranking daimyo, owning the largest domains, but having the least political power. The daimyo were descended from warlords who had surrendered to Tokugawa Ieyasu during his wars of unification. They were thus considered outsiders, and weren’t trusted by the shogunate. Tozama had to rule domains far from the capital since they were considered dangerous, and they were often kept under watch by the fudai. As a result, they weren't appointed to high positions in government either. In the end, however, the tozama would be the ones to overthrow the shogunate. The daimyo were subservient to the shogun, but they did enjoy some degree of autonomy, as each domain had their own economies, currencies and even militaries, comprised of samurai.

Samurai: The samurai were warriors who, like the daimyo, existed since before the first shogunate was founded; they were often under a daimyo’s employment. Unemployed samurai, known as the ronin, were not very respected in society. Samurai served their daimyo as medieval European knights with their lords, and basically served as private armies. They weren't allowed to own land and lived near the daimyo’s castle, being regularly paid by the the daimyo in stipends. These warriors lived by a code called bushido, similar to chivalry in Europe; based off of the values of frugality, loyalty, honor and discipline in martial arts. The samurai was initially introduced as a class of warriors, but as the Tokugawa Shogunate was mostly peaceful, the samurai began to fight less. Instead, the Samurai also became cultural leaders, engaging in the arts and literature. The samurai could exercise some control over peasants, as well, like beheading them for being disrespectful. So essentially, the shogun, the daimyo and the samurai were the ruling class of the shogunate system.

Ruled classes: The peasants, artisans and merchants were the classes being ruled. These people could own land and property, though they would have to pay taxes to the local daimyo.

Conclusion: The shogunate system proved to be a stable way to rule over Japan. The rigid social hierarchy did cause some rebellions, but none significantly damaged the shogunate’s framework. That stability ended in the 19th century, when the arrival of Western powers at Japan’s doorstep created a divide within Japan. Japan split into the shogunate and its supporters, who kept giving in to Western demands, and the Japanese nationalists, who sought to restore the emperor to actual power. Eventually, the nationalists won, and in 1868 the shogunate was overthrown in a revolution known as the Boshin War. This revolution was led by Tozama leaders from the Satsuma and Choshu domains. The emperor was restored to power, and a modernization process called the Meiji Restoration began. That put an end to the shogunate system, which had ruled over Japan for about seven centuries.

This edict was issued in 1635 by Tokugawa Iemitsu, the shogun of Japan from 1623 to 1651. It was written to the commissioners of Nagasaki, a port city in Southwestern Japan. He likely wrote this edict to prevent Westerners and other foreigners from exerting influence on Japan (especially when it comes to religion) and to prevent the Japanese people from engaging with individuals and practices, from other nations or cultures, particularly those in the West.

This document outlines six commands/laws (yet judging by their numbering, the edict probably has more in real life). The first of these states that Japanese ships are severely prohibited from sailing off to foreign nations. #2 asserts that no Japanese person is allowed to travel overseas. If anyone endeavors to do this secretly, they will be put to death. The ship involved will be commandeered, and its owner will be apprehended. The affair will have to be reported to a higher jurisdiction. #3 says that any Japanese person that comes back from abroad after living there will be executed. #4 declares that any site where people practice and teach Christianity is to be investigated in depth by the two officials from Nagasaki whom the edict is for. #7 says that any Westerners who help spread Christian teachings may be imprisoned. #10 contends that Samurai are not authorized to buy any articles coming from foreign vessels right from Chinese traders in Nagasaki.

Sokō writes that because farmers, merchants and artisans grow food, sell products and create them for the benefit of others, that those three jobs or positions are all related. On the other hand, Samurai don’t sow, make or sell items that help fulfill the needs of others. Rather, he and other Samurai were raised to be warriors and serve at court. Sokō then adds that while Samurai aren’t cultivators, this shouldn’t mean they don’t have a place in society. After all, a samurai’s duty is to ponder his own role in life, to give faithful service to his master (if he has one), to strengthen his allegiance to his friends and, while reflecting upon his own role in the world, to commit to his responsibilities as a Samurai. And since the Samurai have committed to following a specific code -- unlike the farmers, merchants and artisans -- Sokō thinks that if a person from the three classes of common people who breaches these ethical principles, the Samurai should punish them straight away. As a result, he’d be maintaining the proper ethical principles of the land. Because the Samurai learn both martial and civil values, on the outside, they are ready for any call to physical service, and intrinsically, they strive to apply their moral code to every one of their relationships, from that with their boss to that with their brother. In other words, internally, they keep peace, but externally, they are always ready to fight. Thus, the three classes of common people should respect the Samurai and make them their teachers, and by following the Samurais’ lessons and principles, the common people can learn what is the most important and what is less so.