Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

GCSE Geography, Source - https://www.physicsandmathstutor.com/geography…

- - - - It can be measured in different ways using indicators
        
        Economic indicators
        
        Poverty line - The number of people who earn less than £1.50 per day (The absolute minimum needed to live off of). It’s less than 0.2% in the UK, whereas it might be as high as 70% in countries like Zimbabwe and Madagascar
        
        Economic inequality - The difference in wealth between the richest and poorest 10% of the population. A large inequality shows that very few people benefit from the country’s economy
        
        GDP (Per Capita) - A measure of wealth based on mean income. A high GDP often represents a high earning population, but it can be skewed by rich or poor minority groups.
        
        Social indicators
        
        Life expectancy - Measures lifestyle and health. An estimate of how long a person will live, made when they’re born, based on current services, risk of disease, and predicted technological advances
        
        Literacy rate - Quality of education/percentage of the population over 15 who are literate, correlating to economic output, a well-educated workforce usually earns higher wages
        
        Infant mortality rate - Quality of healthcare and attitudes towards children. Infant mortality is important as infants are some of the most vulnerable in society, so they are more likely to catch disease
        
        Environmental indicators
        
        Pollution levels - The volume of pollution in the air and water shows how wasteful a country is and how efficient its technology is
        
        Green space - The more open land a country has, the nicer it is to live there. Comparing stats at different times shows the government’s attitude towards the environment
      - How advanced a country is in terms of access to services, opportunities, and essential resources
      - Advancements in technology have changed how we measure development. Different development values can be interpreted in different ways for different societies, as some countries value certain factors more than others
    - - Measure numerous factors to rank a country between 0 and 1. It takes into account life expectancy, living standards, GDP, literacy rate, corruption, inequality, level of education and other factors
      - The top and bottom 5 countries are:
        
        Norway - 0.953
        
        Switzerland - 0.944
        
        Australia - 0.939
        
        Ireland - 0.938
        
        Germany - 0.936
        
        Niger - 0.354
        
        Central African Republic - 0.367
        
        South Sudan - 0.388
        
        Chad - 0.404
        
        Burundi - 0.417
      - (See HDI map) The most developed countries (Dark Blue), have large economies with advancing technology industries, well structure duties and towns with good infrastructure, and usually free education
    - - The Rostow theory states that every country follows the same path to development, through 5 stages
        
        Traditional society - relies on subsidence farming, primary industry, and has traditional cultures and values. Low levels of technology and scientific knowledge leads to manual farming
        
        Pre-conditions for takeoff - The country begins to create resources needed around the world. International trading has not yet begun, but resources are collected for profit
        
        Takeoff - The country industrialises rapidly, as many businesses begin to investing it. Valuable resources begin to be traded without any manufacture, so profit is limited. Workers move from agriculture to industry, as services improve.
        
        Drive to maturity - The countries problems are not yet solved by the growing economy, but businesses develop, allowing the government to generate more money through taxes. Industries are stopped from exploiting workers, and many job opportunities and a good economy is left
        
        High mass consumption - The final stage for most developed countries. High average income allows for luxury items, and families have a high standard of living with very good access to services
    - - Whilst neighbouring countries can have different levels of development, the world can be split as a whole, into developed and developing countries
        
        (See world division map) This is known as the Brandt line, and it divides the world into the developed countries in the Northern Hemisphere (Europe, North America, Russia, Australia), and the developing countries in the Southern Hemisphere (Asia, Africa, South America)
        
        This divide is due to education levels, which might affect the number of workers in high skilled jobs, health, as poorer countries might have limited doctors, or unsubsidised (payed for) healthcare, and higher vulnerability to disease, and historical disadvantages, as richer countries might have previously taken control and exploited poorer countries (see diagram)
    - - Tracks the movement of resources and goods to show different areas trade in a cycle.
      - Selling goods is more profitable than selling resources, so trading often isn’t fair between different countries,
      - Resources are given to the core by the periphery and semi-periphery which trades goods back to them. This allows the core to become richer as the periphery remains poor (see diagram)
      - This can be used to describe different countries, or inequality within a single country
    - - Climate - This determines the resources that a country is able to trade. Regular rain allows fresh water and less waterborne diseases, temperate climates allow good crop growth, and large rainfall allows for water trading. Warm climate allows plant growth for food, high temperatures lead to drought and soil erosion. Cold climates stop plant growth, so countries must rely on imports. Extreme temperatures prevent development due to building damage and loss of life
      - Different tovernments have different aims, and styles of leadership. This can greatly affect economic growth and lifestyle. Capitalist countries are usually more developed than communist countries, although they lead to greater wealth inequalities
      - It is also important for a country to have good international relations, as it allows for trading opportunities for profit, and it means that they can appeal for aid when necessary
    - - Essentially a measure of how honest a government is. Should always be considered when using official government statistics.
      - (See corruption level map) Includes governments who force themselves into powers or stay there for too long. Police receiving bribes to change laws or ignore criminal activity. Money is taken out of aid, or spent in the wrong places
      - 5% of global GDP is spent corruptly
    - - Many countries might try to increase their development in order to grow the economy or improve lifestyle. There are two different ways that this can occur.
        
        Top down projects
        
        Schemes planned by the government
        
        The Three Gorges dam in China is one example
        
        It produces about 85 terra watts of power per year
        
        1.2 million resettled
        
        Generates energy for 13 million people
        
        Reduces risk of flooding
        
        Cost £25 billion
        
        Generates hydroelectric energy
        
        10% of China’s energy needs
        
        Large scale so they benefit many people. Creates job opportunities
        
        Locals have no say in the project. Homes may be demolished causing eviction. Very expensive and usually take a lot of time. Environmentally negative to create
        
        Bottom up projects
        
        Schemes planned by small, usually nonprofit organisations such as charities or universities
        
        Water Aid is one example
        
        Provides clean water, decent toilets, and general hygiene knowledge to many East African countries
        
        Helps those who are most vulnerable
        
        Since 2015 it has helped 25 million people access clean water, and 24 million access sanitation facilities
        
        They focus on poor families and reduce inequality. Relatively cheap so it can help a large spread of people across a country
        
        Reliant on voluntary donations, limiting effectiveness. Often unsuccessful due to lack of training and planning
        
        Both development techniques should be used to evenly develop a country and reduce inequality
    - - Has a very long coastline which is useful for international trading, as well as a large surface area to farm crops
      - It has the second largest population in the world. It is the world's largest democracy. It is the birthplace of 4 of the world's major religions, and it is the world's third greatest emitter of greenhouse gases
      - It relies on Foreign Direct Investment - Any money or investment that comes from overseas companies. In India this is usually Trans-national companies investing IT/call centers
        
        The workers receive low pay as there are always more workers who need work
        
        Some say that the workers are being exploited as they receive little pay for putting on many hours
        
        However, they do fill many jobs, and contribute to India's economy
      - The majority of India's population doesn't work, although those who do work are usually aged between 20 and 49
        
        The overall age of the population is increasing, as people are having less children in an effort to reduce the population. This means that the number of workers is increasing now, but will decrease in the future
      - India is an example of a country with a large economic divide. Maharashtra is an example of a core area, as it imports and refines raw material, whereas Bhutan is a periphery area
      - India has a reasonably low GDP as there are so many people that most jobs created are low skill, and therefore low income. In rural areas they mostly have undeveloped technology
      - Development in India can be dependant on location - areas such as Mumbai have a history of development due to earlier settlers, and they are near the coast so they can trade more easily
      - Older males are in the best position to profit off of India’s economic growth, as they can take higher skilled jobs
  - - - Tropical Cyclones
        
        What is a Tropical Cyclone?
        
        A tropical cyclone, is a very large, spinning storm that forms in the tropics
        
        Tropical cyclones have high winds and torrential rain, and usually affect small islands and coastal regions
        
        Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones
        
        Tropical cyclones are characterised by their low pressure, intense weather and spinning structure
        
        Warm air rises and creates an updraught during the formation of a tropical cyclone, causing an area of low pressure to form. The are inside a tropical cyclone is often as low as 950mb (the pressure on Earth is usually 1013mb). The centre of the storm, called the eye, can be 15% lower than areas outside of the storm
        
        Tropical cyclones are characterised by thunderstorms, strong winds and intense rainfall. The area surrounding the centre, called the eye wall contains the strongest winds, thunder and lightning, and torrential rain. In very intense storms, sustained winds can reach 240km/hour (150mph), and gusts can exceed 320km/h (200mph)
        
        Tropical cyclones rotate due to the spin of the Earth. In the southern hemisphere, the storms spin clockwise; in the northern, anticlockwise
        
        Tropical cyclone structure
        
        There are complicated processes going on inside a tropical cyclone. Below is a cross-section of a tropical cyclone (see image) (imagine if you cut a tropical cyclone in half and looked in the middle)
        
        Global Distribution of Tropical Cyclones
        
        Tropical cyclones are named different things in different regions
        
        Hurricane: In the USA and Latin America/ The Caribbean/ Usually form mid-July to September
        
        Cyclone: Australia (Oceania) and Madagascar. Usually form January - April (summer - autumn in the Southern Hemisphere)
        
        Typhoon: India, Japan and the Philippines. Usually form from July to October
    - - The Structure of the Earth
        
        As we cannot physically see inside the Earth, scientists who study the Earth (geologists) have used different methods to predict its structure. The Earth is separated into layers of different depths and compositions
        
        Starting from the centre, the Earth's structure is thought to be separated into these layers (see layer image):
        
        The inner core
        
        A solid ball of iron/nickel
        
        It's under a huge amount of pressure as it has the weight of the whole Earth pushing against it, which causes it to remain solid
        
        Within the inner core, radioactive elements like uranium and thorium are decaying. Radioactive decay gives off lots of heat (the inner core is over 5000°C). This heat is responsible for Earth's internal energy, and it spreads through the different layers
        
        The outer core
        
        The outer core is a molten (liquid) layer of iron and nickel that surrounds the inner core
        
        The heat from the inner core creates convection currents (see convection currents diagram)
        
        The lower mantle
        
        Mainly solid rock
        
        The upper mantle (the asthenosphere)
        
        Constantly moves and flows due to convection currents, which moves the solid lithosphere above
        
        Very dense fluid
        
        The lithosphere
        
        Solid rock lying on top of the asthenosphere
        
        The crust (the top of the lithosphere)
        
        Contains very little of the lithosphere - most is held in the mantle
        
        Made up of large slabs called tectonic plates, which can be tens to hundreds of kilometres thick
        
        Either continental crust which makes up our land, which is old
- - - - Coastal zones
        
        The coastal zone is a constantly evolving physical landscape, wherever the land meets the sea. Coasts are valuable physical environments since they provide resources such as oil and fish, homes for humans and habitats for species as well as being a tourist attraction
      - Geology of coastlines
        
        The type of rock is very influential to the shape of the coastline. Coastlines can be concordant or discordant, depending on which way the rock beds run compared to the sea:
        
        If the rock beds run parallel to the edge of the sea, the coast is called concordant. Concordant coasts can be identified by high cliffs and coves
        
        If the rock beds run perpendicular (at right angle) to the edge of the sea, the coast is called discordant. Discordant coasts can be identified by headlands and bays
      - Discordant coastlines
        
        This is where the rock strata run perpendicular to the sea, which can create successions of headlands and bays: less resistant rocks are eroded faster than the most resistant rocks are eroded faster than the most resistant rocks, which leads to the formation of bays
      - Concordant coastlines
        
        Concordant coastlines are where the rock strata run parallel to the coast. This means that if you walked into land, the rock beneath your feet would alternate between bands of more resistant and less resistant rock. These different rock types erode at different rates, and so form different landforms.
        
        Concordant coastlines can lead to the formation of coves and cliffs.