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Neuroscience, ACTION POTENTIAL, resting membrane potential, Neurons and…

- - - - virtual exam :red_flag:
      - sample exam :check:
      - blackboard :check:
    - - labeling diagrams
      - T/F
      - multiple choice
- - - - journal search
      - database
        
        pubmed
        
        reviews
        
        clinical trials
- - - - saltatory conductance
  - - - soma
      - axons
      - hillock
    - - as it happens high-threshold zones will open
        
        Nav1.6 is very sensiitve
        
        cues forward propagating action potential
        
        regenrated at nodes of ranvier
      - Nav1.2
        
        additional signal from low threshold zones (Nav1.6)
        
        sum of positive charge is enough to open high threshold Na gates
        
        Backpropagating charge
- - - - they cross at different potentials
    - - there may be many different curves with different amplitudes and currents
- - - - hair pin loop
        
        aa sequences inside
        
        selectivity filter
      - segment 4 alpha-helical loops has a voltage sensor S4
- - - - If membrane potential (Vm) is different than command potential, then the clamp amplifier injects current into the axon making Vm = Vcommand
        
        negative feedback system Vcommand -Vm = Voutput
        
        current flowing back to the exon is measured
- - - - strong response in a simple system
- - - - regeneration of AP
        
        amplitude of the current goes through the tube
      - biological matter for insulation
        
        myelin sheath
- - - - falling phase
        
        undershoot
        
        slow recovery to resting membrane potential of -65mV
        
        ATP Na/K pump
        
        efflux of potassium
        
        drives it toward E-K -90mV
        
        hyperpolarize
      - reversal of influx
      - positive feedback mechanism
        
        keeps driving the Equilibrium potential to +55mV Na
        
        is never reched
        
        closer it gets the more the membrane is depolarized
- - - - mA/cm^2
        
        inward current causes negative deflection
        
        line in blue zone is outward current shifts as membrane potential rises
    - - mV
        
        depolarization causes rise in membrane potential from -65 to -26
- - - - sodium
        
        depolarization
        
        sodium
- - - - production of action potentia
        
        low threshold area compared to dendrites
    - - sufficient excitatory signal
      - opposition to inhibitory signals from another soma
- - - - sensory afferent stimulation
      - patellar tendon
      - proper movement of lower leg
    - - too much inhibition
      - delay from interneuron
      - lack of glutamate release
      - problem with sensory neurons
  - - - inhibitory interneuron
        
        flexor motor neuron (inhibited) Hamstring
        
        opposing muscle has to relax
        
        multipolar
        
        glycine
      - extensor motor neuron (activated) Quadriceps
        
        leg moved upward
        
        acetylcholine
        
        efferent
      - releases glutatmate
        
        information processing in the CNS
      - pseudounipolar
- - - - Use atp
      - transport ions against conc. gradient
- - - - secondary
        
        tertiary
        
        quaternary structure
  - - - propels ions through the channel
      - Na stripped of waters of hydration and pulled inside
      - larger diameter K is pushed out
        
        size matters
    - - receptor has I=100 million ions/sec
    - - slowly rebuild resting membrane potential
- - - - millivolts in neurons
      - electrical potential
        
        drives ions through channels
        
        current flow is the direction of net movement of positive charge
        
        anions opposite to current
        
        cations same as current direction
        
        separation of charge
        
        reduction = depolarization
        
        inside become less negative
        
        increase = hyperpolarization
        
        Vin - Vout = Vmembrane
        
        Vrest = Vin
    - - nano and milli amperes
    - - mega ohms
    - - nano and pico siemens
- - - - positive charge from K+ ion accumulates on the inside of the pm
        
        this repulses other positive charge and prevents them from entering
        
        it reaches equilibrium potential
    - - Vm represent multiple ions
- - - - relative permeability
        
        high to K+
        
        low to Na+
        
        more flux of potassium than sodium at rest
        
        40x more permeable to potassium than it is to sodium
- - - - site directed mutagenesis
      - toxins changed function of channel
      - recorded electrical activity
- - - - each channel has its own respective battery
  - - - Ohm's Law with Ek included
  - - - total current for potassium
- - - - negative charge is on the inside
      - discharge is quick because the distance between the two plates is very short
  - - - linear
      - ohmic response
- - - - works against concentration gradient
- - - - GABA inhibitory
      - Glu Excitatory
    - - Autism syndrome-like disorders, Fragile X
      - structure changes functionality
      - synaptic transmission movement of molecules
- - - - astrocytes
        
        regulate synaptic transmission
        
        number
        
        formation
        
        clean up
        
        blood brain barrier
        
        active
        
        cytokine storm
        
        take up most space
        
        complex trees
        
        eliminate concentration of ions and other chemicals
  - - - regenerates AP
  - - - Myelin-associated glycoprotein
    - - chromosome 17 duplication
      - schwaan cells over stimulated causes deformity in limbs and gait problems
    - - demyelination of different axons localization affects severity
      - chromosome 18 mutation recessive shiverer mouse model
      - autoimmune disorder
- - - - constipation
        
        side effects
- - - - input
      - integrative
        
        soma
      - conductive
        
        myelin sheaths that wrap around the axon
      - output
        
        synaptic/axonal terminal
      - component
        
        sensory
        
        motor
        
        interneuron
        
        local
        
        short distance
        
        inhibitory
        
        diversity
        
        projection
        
        longer distance
        
        neuroendocrine
        
        vasoconstriction of capillaries
        
        paracrine secretions
      - Axon hillock
        
        between soma and first myelinated segment of axon
        
        release of nt
  - - - branches are axons
    - - retinal, olfaction
      - bifurcated single/peripheral axon around soma
    - - spinal cord
      - pyramidal
      - purkinje complex dendritic tree
    - - giant squid firing action
        
        oscilliscope
    - - layers of brain
      - inhibitory interneurons
      - location of interneurons is different
      - staining for intercellular markers
      - immunue/genetic markers
      - Apical/basal dendrites
      - diversity is to control their neighbors the projection neurons
    - - fast/slow firing
      - biocytin
        
        labels entire cell during a recording
        
        distinguish individual cells
        
        neurolucida
        
        fluorescent markers, somatostatin
        
        olm cells
        
        projects onto other cells
        
        parvalbumin
        
        calbindin
      - have to harmonize
  - - - sophisticated equipment
- - - - mRNA from brain 1 and 2 applied to wells
        
        reduced experssion has red signal from brain 1
        
        green signal reduced expression in brain 2
        
        yellow signal is equivalent signal
      - sticks to mRNA from brain amount is represented by heat map
- - - - protein, sugar, fat converted to pyruvic acid
  - - - channel proteins, receptors
        
        constantly moving
        
        very fast process
        
        can move length of an entire cell or synapse within seconds/microseconds
    - - reshaped constantly renewed by activity
  - - - Tubulin, 25nm
      - carry molecules from the periphery to distal parts
    - - neurofilament 10nm
    - - smallest, 5nm made of actin
      - most dynamic located in distal parts
      - rearrangement influences shape of membrane, function of dendritic spines, depression
- - - - circular distance measurement
  - - - neurodegeneration and shrunken brain
  - - - time of day
- - - - taken up by nerve endings in the periphery
      - determine where the distal processes in the skin
      - herpes and rabies
        
        can stay dormant for many years and reappear as shingles travelling anterogradely
- - - - inward sodium current is blocked
      - does not block outward current like tetraethylammonium (TEA)
        
        blocks voltage dependent K channels
        
        outward current is still visible on membrane current recording
    - - found throughout the body and is produced by bacteria that are in the food chain
- - - - blocks action potential
- - - - mind is the brain
      - distinct faculties in the brain
      - size of organ is measure of power
      - structure in brain determined by the use
      - shape of skull determines personality traits
        
        hydrocephalus
        
        skull is softer in children
        
        this is not true
  - - - cannot express thoughts
      - post mortem hole in brain
      - Broca's area
    - - cannot understand words writing
    - - cannot understand anything or speak
    - - cannot remember names
  - - - lost control of emotions, violent behavior
        
        executive function damage in frontal lobe
  - - - biodiversity
    - - shape of beaks
    - - somatosensation highly developed
        
        barrel field/cortex
        
        one for each whisker
- - - - neuronal soma cell bodies
      - six layers bent over one another
      - lateral geniculate layer of the thalamus
  - - - function
      - connectivity
      - what number brodman's area for broca's area? 44, 45 wenicke's area? 42, 22
      - Broca's area speech production
      - Wernicke's area written and spoken language
- - - - 3 color cones in the retina in parallel
        
        in series
        
        more complex whole picture is formed by occipital cortex, sensory processing, blending
      - neural streams and networks
      - increasing in complexity vs increasing in redundancy (parallel)
- - - - paracas indians
      - egypt
      - mesopotamai
      - repeated throughout the life of the individual
- - - - Injury cases
        
        building manual labor
        
        wars
        
        pyramids
        
        head trauma
        
        distant effects as a consequence of injury
      - marrow in the skull
        
        brain not important in mummification
    - - certain patients were not to be treated
- - - - battles exposed parts of the brain
- - - - recordings that happen in hospitals are extracellular
- - - - neurotransmitter
      - vesicles
- - - - efferent
        
        muscles and glands
      - ventral horn
        
        somatic motor nuclei
    - - afferent
        
        sensory
      - dorsal horn
        
        somatic sensory nuclei
        
        visceral sensory nuclei
        
        dorsal root ganglion
        
        pseudounipolar