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Paper 2 - Core - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Less than $1 036
      - Ethiopia
    - - $1 036 - 4 034
      - India
    - - $4 046 - 12 535
      - Mexico
    - - Greater than 12 535
      - United Kingdom
  - - - High Birth Rate
      - High Death Rate
      - Lack of Contraception, No Female Empowerment, No Basic Medical Care
      - Pyramid - Wide Base, Narrow Peak (low life expectancy), Concave Sides (high mortality rate)
      - No Country is like this now
    - - High Birth Rate
      - Rapidly Falling Death Rate
      - Contraception is rarely used, Low Female Empowerment, Basic Medical Care to treat common diseases, HIV & AIDS present
      - Wide Base, Straight Sides (steady death rate), Narrow Peak (low life expectancy)
      - Niger, Ethiopia
    - - Contraception is encouraged, females are empowered to multitask, working & raising a family, most major air born and water born diseases are curable through paracetamol
      - Dropping Birth Rates
      - Dropping Death Rates
      - Smaller consistent base (lower birth rates and infant mortality), linear sides (consistent death rates), narrow peak (low life expectancy)
      - Algeria, Honduras
    - - Low Death Rates
      - Increasing Birth Rates
      - Contraception is widely used, women are empowered to work
      - Narrow Base (low birth rates), convex sides, (low death rate), wide peak (long life expectancy)
      - Sweden, Brazil
    - - Birth Rates & Death Rates are Low
      - Contraception is almost always used, women work equally and choosing not to raise a family, government are trying to incentivise having children, Medical Advancements
      - UK, Germany, France, Japan
      - Wide Base (increasing birth rates), convex sides, wide peaks
  - - - Young Dependant
        
        0-15 (globally)
      - Old Dependants
        
        64+
      - Economically Active
        
        15 - 64
    - - More Economic Cash
      - Culture & Religion causing larger families
      - Better Healthcare meaning people live longer
      - Conflict
      - Sexual Revolution (60s)
      - Decreasing Infant Mortality Rate
      - One Child Policy
    - - Supporting an ageing population
      - Encouraging the Youthful population
      - Balancing an environmentally & economically populations
    - - Supporting Youthful Populations
      - Creating enough jobs
      - Supporting the healthcare system
    - - Total Dependency Ratio
        
        (Young Dependant Population + Old Dependant Population) / Economically Active Population * 100
      - Child Dependency Ratio
        
        Young Dependant Population / Economically Active Population * 100
      - Old Age Dependency Ratio
        
        Old Dependant Population / Economically Active Population * 100
  - - - Flat Relief
        
        Easy to construct Infrastructure
      - Climate
        
        Not too hot, not too cold
      - Fertile Soil
        
        High yields for crops - FOOD SECURITY
      - Water Supply - essential for crops to grow and hydration + transportation
      - Raw Materials
        
        Construction of Infrastructure
      - Wild Life / Habitat
        
        No competition from surrounding animals
    - - Industry
        
        Employment, Development, Global Importance
      - Infrastructure : Transport
        
        Movement of People / Soft Power (Vanity Projects)
      - Geopolitical
        
        Unstable areas experience mass migration
      - Conflict
        
        Allow people to live without being persecuted for their views/lifestyle etc...
    - - Ethiopia (LIC)
        
        Around precipitation because piping is expensive
        
        Around key river intersections or lakes (valleys where water collects)
        
        fertile soil
        
        Rivers that connect to the oceans
      - France (HICs)
        
        Near accessible rivers/oceans
        
        Not in the Massif Central
        
        Populations swell near borders to other politically important countries
        
        Cooler Temperatures
  - - - the movements of refugees and internally displaced people (those displaced by conflicts) as well as people displaced by natural or environmental disasters, chemical or nuclear disasters, famine, or development projects
    - - someone who is forced to flee his or her home but who remains within his or her country's borders. They are often referred to as refugees, although they do not fall within the legal definitions of a refugee
    - - refugee a person who has been forced to leave their country or home, because there is a war or for political, religious or social reasons: There has been a steady flow of refugees from the war zone.
    - - Conflict
        
        Could be gangs. Justified through political, religious, racial discrimination
      - Development
        
        Infrastructure projects (people who are not in the way but are affected leave voluntarily)
      - Disaster
        
        Natural (volcano, rising sea levels) or Human (nuclear radiation / oil spills)
    - - Large populations forced into already populous settlements, putting pressure of existing infrastructure
      - Familes / People are seperated, puts pressure on (often foreign) institutions
      - Other governments have to pay for aid (water food electricity) for refugee camps
      - Conflict between refugee camps involves local people
      - Deportation of crime/conflict/rape on local communities
      - Upsetting local communities
    - - Unfavourable / Unreliable climates (low precipitation)
      - Conflict (political displacement e.g. Berlin Wall)
    - - Mass Migration across STATE borders
      - Increased amount of homeless people in other (internal) cities
      - Increased demand for employment in other internal cities
      - IDPs cannot be helped by UN and other foreign countries
      - Competition with natives
    - - Ethiopia (LIC)
        
        Move to find education, employment, law enforcement
        
        Mostly women and children moving from rural to urban
      - France (HIC)
        
        Moving away from deindustrialized areas
        
        Move towards the coasts where the quality of life is better
        
        Large retiring workforce move towards the coasts
  - - - Poverty
      - Unemployment
      - Poor Public Health
      - Poor Standard of Living
      - Rural workers are not favourable to employees
      - Expensive to rejuvenate derelicts clums
      - Causes longer commutes
    - - National vs International Interest
      - Primary & Secondary vs Tertiary & Quaternary
      - Mumbai (Bollywood, IT vs Textiles)
  - - - Happens
      - Longer Life Expectancies caused by better healthcare
    - - Doesn't Happen
      - Low Life Expecancies from poor healthcare
  - - - Smaller families
      - Women can work
      - Higher Education is expensive
      - Access to contraception
      - Lowest number of single mothers
    - - Large families
      - No access to contraception
      - Women are not empowered
      - Costs of raising a child are not considered instead, they are thought to enable financial security for parents when they retire
      - Polygamy
      - These countries support more economically dependant people and have larger youthful populations
      - Very few single fathers
  - - - Government Policy (OCP)
      - Access to Abortions
      - Ultrasound Technologies
      - Religion
      - Societal Conventions / Lack of Women Rights
      - Asylum Seekers
    - - Health Pandemics (AIDs)
      - War
      - Equal Working Rights meaning men aren't favoured and rates return to a natural rate
      - Women who aren't forced to leave their country
  - - - Labour Supply
        
        More skilled workers in more advanced industries, employment of women
      - Savings
        
        More disposable income for families boosting markets
      - Human Capital
        
        Decreases fertility rate, increases abortions & contraception, decrease domestic-working women
      - Economic Growth
        
        Taxes can be spent on bettering infrastructure, ensuring workers are healthy
  - - - Increases Birth Rates from 1.73
      - Encouraging young families (parents under 30)
      - Propaganda inferring that women's fertility declines in their 20s
      - Fertility is decreasing
      - Women will not have children or will not have the number they want
      - Youthful populations are needed to support an ageing population
      - Increasing opportunity to do sport and go on holiday which increases sex drive
    - - Signs of People Trafficking
        
        Someone else takes the money
        
        looking gloomy or shy
        
        cash only
      - Causes of People Trafficking
        
        People are promised better lifes in HICs, working and being sheltered by are instead scammed and forced to work to pay of debt
        
        Fear & Manipulation means they are unaware of manipulation
        
        Sold by Families / Picked up from the Streets
        
        Profitable Industry
        
        Racism, Poverty, Social Marginilisation
        
        Links to border disputes (USA/Mexico)
        
        10% of Victims escape
      - Effects
        
        Sexual, Criminal, Domestic, Financial Abuse
      - Success of the Awareness Campaigns
        
        Is able to identify key areas of trafficking
    - - Ageing Populations in HICs
      - Governments have to pay large sums for large retired populations
      - Increase number of old people with ageing conditions e.g. senile dementia
      - Create social programs where old people can help the community (e.g. gardening, farming, building)
    - - Equal Pay Standard Policy
      - Jobs are weighed by importance and distributed points
      - If a worker earns less than someone of the same score, they get a pay rise
      - Companies are fined if they don't adhere to the policy
      - Males are more likely to be paid more after higher education than females
      - The gap is double for women who have children, but less for parents without children
      - By making working hours more flexible the wage gap will shrink
      - Cons
        
        Jobs that are mostly female won't be entitled to pay rises
        
        The Private Sectors prioritizes jobs on market rates and individual performance
        
        Equal rates does not change gender distribution
        
        Men still work higher paid jobs in higher paid industries
      - Pros
        
        It grabs public interest, encouraging women and business to take a stance
        
        Has benefited some men as well
        
        Forcing is better than transparency without consequence
- - - - Sun Radiation
        
        Most energy absorbed at the equator
        
        energy is lost in the polar regions
        
        energy comes into earth as short-wave radiation (powerful)
        
        Incoming radiation is known as insolation
      - Earth Radiation
        
        Small Affect on urban climates
        
        energy leaves earth as long-wave radiation
      - Good Greenhouse Effect
        
        Water Vapour, Carbon Dioxide, Methane allows short wave energy to pass through and warm the earth. Saves us from space
      - Bad Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
        
        The more greenhouse gases the less long-wave radiation escapes back into space and cause the earth to warm too much - damages ecosystems
        
        GLOBAL DIMMING happens when we release too much gas, which forms water nuclei and clouds. This means less sunlight
      - Energy Surplus
        
        December - Tropics of Capricorn (southern) gets a lot of energy because it is closer to the sun
        
        The equator gets the most sun
      - Energy Defecit
        
        December - the north tilts away so the Arctic Circle gets little energy or daylight
        
        the curvature scatters energy meaning more energy is lost in the north
    - - we release less in lower frequency
      - Albedo Effect
        
        the more the ice disappear, the more likely it will disappear
    - - We release Carbon Dioxide = melts ice = releases methane = traps more long-wave radiation = heats ecosystems = melts ice = oceans rise = releases methane....
      - we release more in higher frequency
  - - - In Ocean
        
        sea levels don't rise
        
        there is no addition of mass by melting ice that is already in water
      - On Land
        
        Se levels do rise
        
        Ice on land (coastal) melts and goes into ocean
        
        this is an addition of mass
      - Impact
        
        Opens up the NORTHWEST PASSAGE
        
        cuts cost and time of trade in half
        
        less shipping causes less harm to the environment
        
        250,000 people would also die of climate change
        
        not available all 12 months
        
        Mass Migration
        
        35 million people live around the permafrost
        
        dead animals will thaw out and spread disease
      - Permafrost
        
        Melting this would result in dead frozen animals thawing out and releasing old irradiated diseases
        
        35 million people live around the permafrost
    - - November 4th 2020 - USA Pulled Out
      - America contributes to 15% of all global emissions
      - They want to keep climate change below 2° and maybe even 1.5° (Article 2)
      - Unearth less carbon sinks (Article 5)
      - Developed countries to help developing countries (Article 9,10,11)
    - - Exposure
        
        How much people are exposed to climate change
      - Sensitivity
        
        How much they could be harmed by their exposure to climate change
      - Adaptive Capacity
        
        the degree to which action can be taken to reduce harm (by reducing exposure or sensitivity)
    - - Carbon Trading
        
        First Introduced in 2005
        
        Smaller Companies sell their excess carbon credits to larger companies who need them
        
        International Scheme
        
        Governments control it = they can reduce pollution by reducing the carbon cap
      - Carbon Offsetting
        
        EasyJet
        
        Invest in forest conservation schemes in South America & Africa
        
        Wind Energy Production in India
        
        Safe Water Provisions in Uganda & Eritrea
        
        Coldplay
        
        Aren't going on tour for their latest album until they can find a carbon neutral way
        
        They planted 10,000 mango trees in India to offset emissions for their second album
        
        They work with Tyndall Centre for Climate Change to conduct research
      - NOOR
        
        European Union funded solar power plant in Morocco (Sahara Desert)
        
        Only 0.3% of the solar energy emitted onto the Sahara Desert is needed to provide Europe will the power it needs.
        
        This helps decrease fossil fuels in Europe
        
        It could decrease the global price of Solar Power
      - Solar Engineering
        
        Reflecting incoming radiation back into space by using
        
        Aerosols
        
        High Albedo Crops/Buildings
        
        Ocean Mirrors
        
        Space Mirrors
        
        It isn't a solution but it does buy more time
      - Aforestation (Arbor Day Foundation)
        
        Trees planted internationally, but most in the USA
        
        Plant on already fertile soil so they have a better survival rate
        
        Mr.Beast used "#teamtrees to raise 20 million dollars by January 1st 2020
        
        They raised $8 million in five days
        
        Individuals contributed as well as celebrities like Elon Musk and the CEO of Twitter Jack Dorsey
        
        Tress help
        
        Improve Water quality by underground filtration
        
        remove carbon and pollutants from the air
        
        Reduce poverty as shade can be used for agriculture
        
        Reduce hunger as they can be fruit trees
      - Carbon Capture / Sequestration
        
        Capture CO² in the air and stores it as a geologic deposit in abandoned carbon sinks
        
        High Cost
        
        Uncertain the ground will absorb all the carbon
        
        tens of billions of tons of CO² need to be captured
    - - Pro
        
        Canada can control and profit from these routes
        
        Trade costs would be cut in half
        
        Would cause less harm to the environment
        
        Avaliable most of the year
        
        Not likely to reverse
        
        Saves time
      - Cons
        
        Lots of traffic
        
        Creates tension between Canada and USA as USA wants the waters to become an international water
        
        Lack of safety / rescue infrastructure in this area due to low population
        
        250,000 would die from the climate change
        
        Not available all year round
        
        Cargo may need warming
    - - Heat Waves
      - Storms & Flooding
        
        Sea levels rise fueling coastal, tropical storms. Warmer air holds more mositure
        
        Destruction of land as this is a powerful force
      - Wild Fires
        
        Dry Soil causes by high temperatures causing high evapouration
    - - Takes 2000 years to form 10cm of soil
      - Farming and Building increases soil erosion
      - It is a finite resource
      - Most stable soil supplies are in low population density areas like Canada and Russia as well as central Australia
      - Healthy soil propagates population growth by providing high crop yields
      - Floods are caused by modern agricultural techniques like monocropping - washing away valuable soil
      - Plants / Crops are carbon sinks - could help mitigate climate change
      - Sea levels rising also floods agricultural land
      - Equator suffers the most from lack of moisture
  - - - our biggest emission is from fossil fuels (85%)
      - we would need 11,000 nuclear power stations to be built by 2050 to replace fossil fuels
      - transport contributes 25% of CO² emissions
        
        Electric Cars mitigates emission
    - - Increased Coastal Erosion
      - Saline Intrusion of Groundwater supplies
      - Deteriation of coral reefs
      - mass migration
      - loss of income from destruction of economic activities and infrastructure
    - - An increase in ecological footrpint is an increase in consumption of natural resources
      - Words To Learn
        
        Biocapacity
        
        an estimate of its production of certain biological materials such as natural resources, and its absorption and filtering of other materials such as carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
        
        Ecological Footprint
        
        the impact of a person or community on the environment, expressed as the amount of land required to sustain their use of natural resources.
        
        Carbon Footprint
        
        the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere as a result of the activities of a particular individual, organization, or community.
        
        Ecological Creditor
        
        a country with a biocapacity that exceeds their Ecological Footprint of consumption, calculated by the ratio of biocapacity to Ecological Footprint of consumption for that country.
        
        Ecological Debtor
        
        is a country with an Ecological Footprint of consumption that exceeds their biocapacity, calculated by the ratio of biocapacity to Ecological Footprint of consumption for that country.
        
        Global Hecatre
        
        a measurement unit for the ecological footprint of people or activities and the biocapacity of the earth or its regions. One global hectare is the world's annual amount of biological production for human use and human waste assimilation, per hectare of biologically productive land and fisheries
    - - Water
        
        Domestic & Industrial Use
        
        60% of our food is reciprocation-dependent / 40% man-made water source dependent
        
        Big issue for LIC & MIC as they need water for their primary & secondary industries (farming & mining)
        
        9 billion people by 2050 = greater demand for water and we only have so much water because it is recycled
        
        Water born diseases = Typhoid
        
        NIGERIA
        
        In Nigeria 1/3 people don't have access to clean water
        
        Nigeria's Minister for Water resources has secured international backing to build new water basins
        
        Nigeria is dependent on water for agriculture
        
        UAE (Abu Dhabi & Dubai)
        
        Rely on Desalinisation of AWG (atmospheric water generation)
        
        Energy Intensive
      - Energy
        
        Energy at sufficient quantity and affordable price
        
        Mostly used for manufacturing processes
        
        Oil resources allow countries to grow economically and politically
        
        OPEC (Venezuela, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia)
        
        Production of energy (using fossil fuels) is very water dependent
        
        More energy demand = greater amount of water used to create electricity
        
        Water loss from poor infrastructure = England & Wales (2011) loss of 2,599 megalitres
        
        USA uses 13% of its' energy to transport and heat water.
      - Food
        
        Starvation leads to malnutrition & child mortality
        
        Increase in middle class = increase in demands for energy intensive foods like red meat and biofuels
        
        Transporting goods takes energy (British/Egyptian Potatoes)
        
        Transporting goods because you can't get them because they aren't in season / Transporting goods because its cheaper on mass (New Zealand Mutton is cheaper than in Wales)
        
        Food Packaging (plastics, pesticides)
      - An improvement from the 1970s concept to deal with them individually
      - HIC has all three or two but can use those two to back up the weaker one
      - LIC may only have one
      - Directly links to GDP, HDI, Literacy Rate, Healthcare, Child Mortality
    - - Ellen MacArthur Foundation
      - Technical Nutrients
        
        non-toxic, non-harmful synthetic materials (plastics & metals) that have no negative effects on the natural environment (if they are not burnt or discarded); they can be used in continuous cycles as the same product without losing their integrity or quality
      - Natural Nutrients
        
        organic materials that, once used, can be disposed of in any natural environment and decompose into the soil, providing food for small life forms without affecting the natural environment.
      - Benefits
        
        consumption of less natural resources
        
        cradle to cradle
        
        Right to repair (open source)
    - - Biomes
        
        Artic, Tundra (Northern Hemishphere)
        
        Warming Climates
        
        Forces taiga biome into tundra, decreasing snow cover and Albedo
      - Habitats
        
        Globally, warming climates shifts biomes meaning animals aren't supported by their current habitat
        
        This will lead to the extinction of species who cannot quickly adapt
    - - Major Carbon Sinks
        
        Oceans
        
        Forests
        
        Permafrost
      - Slow Carbon Cycle
        
        Carbon stored from the creation of mountains is trapped in the rock
        
        100-200 million years later it is released by Volcanoes
        
        Does have a large annual significance
        
        Causes long-term climate change
      - Fast Carbon Cycle
        
        Deciduous flora absorbs emitted carbon during Summer and Spring
        
        Leaves decompose in Fall and Winter releasing Carbon Dioxide
        
        It is a seasonal variation
      - Carbon Stored in Ice
        
        Hold 70% of the world's fresh water
        
        Release of this carbon increases melting of glaciers
      - Carbon Stored in Oceans
        
        Can take lots of CO² & heat
        
        Fish would prosper from extra carbon dioxide and so would algae which would absorb more carbon and photosynthesis more which is better for life on land
        
        It would acidify ecosystems
        
        Water would heat up minimally but would still affect important sensitive areas like coral reefs
        
        Would affect how noise travels (animal communication)
      - Carbon stored in the biosphere (earth)
        
        Would cause long droughts
        
        More natural disasters
        
        Loss of biodiversity
        
        Displaces communities in rainforest
- - - - Most HIC have at least 2 of the 3 - this often allows them to access the third
      - Water is used for cooling / steam in nuclear or coal power plants
      - Access to oceans or rivers also allow for renewable energy
      - Water allows for crop irrigation
      - Energy allows for the powering of agricultural technologies
      - Energy allows for development of the economy
    - - Products are burned to extract copper, which is then sold back to Europe
      - The Basel Convention wants to ban the transport of hazardous waste (including non e-waste)
      - The amount of e-waste is increasing
      - Certain products are preferred as outdated technologies are not sellable and can be repaired for local use
      - Socio-Economic Factors
        
        Young Kids are financially supported and can pay to be educated
        
        Health threatening conditions
      - Environmental Factors
        
        Very toxic
        
        toxic fumes transfer into the food chain
        
        there are no living organisms in the nearby ecosystems
      - MICs & LICs have less strict environment policies
  - - - Biological Nutrients
        
        Organic materials that, once used, can be disposed of in any natural environment and decompose into the soil, providing food for small life forms without affecting the natural environment. This is dependent on the ecology of the region; for example, organic material from one country or landmass may be harmful to the ecology of another country or landmass
      - Technical Nutrients
        
        Strictly limited to non-toxic, non-harmful synthetic materials (plastics & metals) that have no negative effects on the natural environment (if they are not burnt or discarded); they can be used in continuous cycles as the same product without losing their integrity or quality. In this manner these materials can be used over and over again instead of being "downcycled" into lesser products, ultimately becoming waste
      - Right to Repair
        
        Companies block repairing by not making their product open source
        
        They will not sell replacements part or if they do, they are overpriced
        
        Companies may repair products at high prices but will refuse to repair attempted self-repair devices
        
        This is legislation that forces TMCs to design for repair and embrace circular economy
      - Ellen MacArthur Foundation (Isle of Wight)
    - - Resource stewardship is: is an ethic that embodies the responsible planning and management of resources. Environmental stewardship refers to responsible use and protection of the natural environment through conservation and sustainable practices. There are also social and economic stewardship for the responsible use and protection of economic and social well-being.
    - - Malthusian Catastrophe
        
        Where the population exceeds the capability to produce food
      - Quantity vs Time
  - - - Hubbert's Peak
        
        Two Curves
        
        2) Production Curve
        
        1) Discovery Curve
        
        It shows that maximum exploitation of a resource only happens after maximum discovery
      - OPECs
        
        80% of the worlds oil
      - No one really knows how long we have left (53 years is estimated)
      - currently producing crude oil fields are rapidly decreasing but new field and "fields yet to be found" are still large
      - Countries like Canada & the UK aren't OPECs and don't have large exports, but don't have large imports - they use their supply to be dependant
    - - Why eat fast food?
        
        Women empowerments means less time is spent on home-cooking
        
        Cheaper than healthier streetfood
        
        More disposable income means people can eat out more
        
        access to lots of restaurants
      - 9 billion people in 2050 - lots to feed
      - Problems caused by Obesity
        
        Diabetes
        
        Heart Disease
        
        High Cholesterol
        
        Circulation Problems
        
        Very Unhealthy
        
        Often caused by fatty red meats
    - - There are fewer middle class citizens in HICs as they exceed this limit
      - MICs offer cheaper labour with less pressure from governments
      - MICs have experienced economic growth meaning families have more disposable income to travel and exert influence across borders
    - - HIC
        
        Lower water use in agriculture because there are more effective irrigation strategies with lower water consumption
        
        There is less agriculture
        
        More for industrial use
        
        more for domestic use
      - LIC
        
        less for industrial use
        
        more for agricultural use
        
        less for domestic use
      - Europe is the largest importer of virtual water
      - Virtual Water is water that is consumed whilst producing food or products through agricultural or industrial processes
      - Brazil is the largest exporter to Europe, exporting livestock, soybeans, cotton, sugar & coffee