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After Interim 3, undertake a literature review that demonstrates…

- - - - Link to Galtung's structural violence
        
        Women are generally excluded from positions of power and decision-making in reconstruction efforts (2015 is example)
        
        Donna Pankhurst (2008) theorised that what she terms a post-conflict backlash against women is mainly characterised by high rates of violence and restrictions on women's access to political, economic, and social resources post-conflict
        
        this often begins with women's exclusion from peace negotiations and deals (2015 agreement) which instead focus on elite actors who are predominantly men
        
        "Peace" used in its general sense is overused and abused as it is a method fo nations to obtain verbal consensus => it is hard for anyone to be against peace and thus by saying they are at peace, they give verbal agreement that they are for peace but this doesn't neecssary mean that their actions correlate
        
        By projecting an image of harmony of interests (purpose) by the term being so loosely defined, the term could facilitate harmony as it provides opponents with one word to express their own values of concern and unity as peace is anybody's agenda
        
        The frequent use of peace gives an unrealistic image of the world (the world is non-harmonious)
        
        some level of precision in language is important for "peace" to serve as a cognitive tool and Galtung argues that there is no one definition of peace except general consensus on what definitions should be avoided
        
        Peace can be regarded as absense of violence
        
        a state of peace should illustrate a state of affairs that is not impossible to obtain but complex and difficult to
        
        "Violence is present when human beings are being influenced so that their actual somantic and mental realisations are below their potential realisations" (structural violence)
        
        the narrow concept of violence (murder, rape etc) means that highly unacceptable social orders would still be compatible with peace
        
        violence is defined as the cause of the difference between the potential and actual, between what could have been and what is (increases this distance and impedes the decreasing of the distance) => when a bad situation is avoidable but not avoided, violence is present
        
        potential level of realisation: that which is possible with a given level of insight and resources => if insight and resources are monopolised by a group or class and are used for other purposes, actual level falls below potential and violence is present in the system => resources channelled away from constructive efforts to bring the actual closer to the potential
        
        Conceive Violence in terms of influence:
        
        influencer, influencee, and mode of influencing
        
        Physical violence: increases constraint on human movements (includes limits on mobility)
        
        Psychological violence: lies, brainwashing, indoctrination, threats etc that decreases mental potentialities => constrains human action
        
        Negative influence: punishment when influencee does actions that are considered wrong by influencer
        
        Positive influence: Rewards => still violence as ultimately, human beings are prevented from realising their potential
        
        Is violence present when there is no physical pain?
        
        threat of physical violence and indirect threat of mental violence which constrains human action
        
        the intention of the balance of power is to constrain others' actions => a lie does not become more of a truth because nobody believes in the lie; untruthfulness is violence under any condition which does not mean that it cannot be the least evil under widely discussed circumstances.
        
        Violence is when there is an actor that commits the violence whether personally or structurally
        
        in both cases, individuals may be hurt physically and psychologically or manipulated by positive and negative influence
        
        only direct violence can be traced back to concrete people as actors
        
        :star: in structural violence, there is not one person who direct;y harms another person; violence is built into the structure and shows up as unequal power and consequently unequal life chances.
        
        the power to decide over the distribution of resources in unevenly distrivuted => the situation is aggravated further if people with low income are also low in education, health, and power which is frequently the case as these factors are all tied together in the social structure
        
        Is people are starving when this is objectively avoidable, then violence is committed regardless of whether there is a clear subject-action-object relation
        :star: there is clear structural violence regarding the comfort women issue as precedent says that the continued debate is avoidable and countries are able to apologise and move on. However, the issue has not been dealt as so in Korea thus there is structural violence
        
        When one million husbands keep one million wives in ignorance, there is structural violence => when in a soceity life expectancy is twice as high in the upper as in the lower classes, violence is exercised even if there are no concrete actors
        
        Structural Violence = Social injustice
        
        Actors: organised in a system of interaction (politically, economically, culturally
        
        In a structure, actors have ranks:
        
        Correlation between rank and centrality: The higher the rank of the actor in the system, the more central his position in the interaction network
        
        Concordance between the ranks: if an actor is high in one system, then he also tends to be high in another system where he participates
        
        Social systems have a tendency to develop these mechanisms meaning unless deliberately and persistently prevented, inequality will be present
        
        structure deprives actos of chances to organise and bring their power to bvear against te topdogs
        
        The objective consequences not the subjective intentions are the primary concern
        
        Distinction between intended and unintended violence important when guilt is to be decided as guilt is tied to intention in Judaeo-Christian ethics
        
        ethical systems directed against intended violence will easily fail to capture structural violence which could lead them to let the big-fish loose to catch the small fries
        
        Manifest violence: Observable
        
        Latent Violence: something that is not present but might easily come about => when the situation is so unstable that the actual realisation level is easily decreased
        
        When the structure is threatened, those who benefit from structural violence, above all those who are at the top, will try to preserve the status quo so well geared to protect their interests
    - - Cynthia Enloe (1989) asked the question "where are the women?", to encourage scholars to see the spaces that women inhabit in global politics and demonstrate that women are essential actors in the international system
        
        she focused on deconstructing the distinctions between what was international and what was personal to show how GP impacts on and is shaped by the daily activities of men and women
        
        traditionally, war and military were seen as masculine endeavours which meant that women involvement to conflict and experiences of conflict were considered peripheral issues and outside the realm of IR considerations
        
        the issue of sexual and gendered violence in conflict has only recently entered the international agenda. Comparatively, the mass rape of women during and after the Second World war was not prosecuted as the occurence was either considered an unfortunate by-product of war or simply ignored
        
        the 2002 Rome Statute recognises rape as a war crime but the recognition has not led to the curtailment of conflict related sexual violence
        
        Links to post colonial feminism:
        
        Postcolonial feminism developed as a response to feminism focusing solely on the experiences of women in colonised nations
        
        seeks to account for the way that racism and long-lasting political, economic, and cultural effects of colonialism affect women in the post-colonial world
        
        In examining wartime rape, Lori Handrahan (2004, 437) has shown the intersection of gender and ethnic identities, where the enemy's women become constructed as "other" and violence against them consequently comes to represent the "expansion of ethnic territory by the male conqueror"
        => rests of gendered constructions which occur at the intersections with other forms of identity such as ethnicity or race
        
        If women are assumed to be victims rather than actors or as peaceful rather than aggressive or as only existing in the domestic or private realm, their experiences and perspectives on global politics are more easily ignored and justified as marginal
    - - Security should not be viewed as protecting the state from other states but address acts of rape and violence, from foreign perpetrators and fellow citizens
        
        occurrences of rape increase during times of war yet would never enter into typical IR discussions that focus solely on state-to-state interaction as IR discussions traditionally remain focused on states as the key actors
        :star: according to the Realist POV, global politics is largely orientated around states. The feminist POV accepts but criticises this as it doesn't take into account rape and women
      - Radical Feminist focus on how women's activities are made invisible on the international scene
        
        Cynthia Enloe argues that issues concerning sex trafficking and migration of low are considered less important than the forefron issues of military and war
        
        Radical feminism stresses that women have never really been excluded from the core of international relations, but have simply not been publicly or profesisonally acknowledged for their past and present contributions to central issues in IR
      - Realism: how the state seeks power and defends its national interests against other competing states within a global anarchy where there is a lack of authority higher than the state
        
        realists generally view the state as the key actor in international politics and de-emphasise (ignore) the role of the individual
        
        Feminism critiques realism whose "socially constructed worldview continues to guide much thought about world politics"
        
        realists overvalue the role of the state in defining international relations without questioning how the state itself is internally structured, politically and socially
        :star: feminist theory consider how the state includes, or excludes, the views of its individual citizens and how, in turn, the state's domestic views translates into foreign policies => role of nationalism and civil societies in Korea in the government breaking the 2017 treaty
        
        Who defines national interests:
        
        if women were included in such discussions, would the national interest be interpreted differently? if so, how?
        
        how would a feminist outlook change foreign policy?
        
        :star: Feminist theory relies heavily on liberalist international organisations and liberal pursuit of civil liberties in order to achieve gender equality
        
        Civil society generally provides strong arenas for feminist and liberalist discussion on the importance of the individual, regardless of gender