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Urban Environments - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Environmental changes - building tidal barriers/sea walls to prevent floods (the Netherlands); zoning for cities vulnerable to seismic events like Tokyo
      - Densely populated, compact cities are more efficient, release less CO2 per capita, and have a greater potential for better public transport
      - New public transport system
        
        Metro systems in Beijing and Shanghai
        
        Bike sharing schemes in London, Paris and Barcelona
        
        Rapid transit bus system in Bogota, Colombia
      - Urban water supplies
        
        Maintain reliable, affordable and acceptable water to households and industries
      - Waste management
        
        Energy from Waste (EfW)
        
        Ankara in Turkey has a major EfW scheme which sells electricity back to the urban grid
    - - Hazard Risks
        
        NYC was affected by Superstorm Sandy in 2012 and there are predictions that such storms will become more frequent in the future
        
        Electricity generators were removed from basements and transferred to the upper floors of building
        
        Smog events in the 1950s
        
        Now NYC's CO2 emissions are about one-third of the USA's average
      - A sustainability plan for the city development of NYC
        
        Cleaner sources of energy - renewables such as HEP from Canada and off-shore wind power
        
        Leaner transport system - electrification, hybrid cars, mass transit, walking and bicycling
        
        Energy efficient buildings - reduction of CO2 emissions from heating, cooling and ventilation of buildings
        
        Leaner waste management system - EfW schemes, recycling and reuse - divert 75% of solid waste from landfills
        
        Parks and public space - all residents live within a 10-minute walk of a park; clean up all contaminated land, brownfields
        
        Improve the quality of waterways to increase opportunities for recreation and restore coastal systems; ensure high quality and reliability of water supply
        
        NYC obtains its water supply from upstate locations, in particular the Catskill and Croton drainage basins. In the 2000s, these supplies were contaminated with agricultural and industrial wastes. NYC came up with a financial incentive to stop farmers and industrialists polluting the area. Both parties were satisfied with the solution and NYC did not need to pay to build a new water purification scheme.
  - - - Started in 2006, will be completed by 2030. Costs around $22 billion. Hoped that 50000 residents will live there, at a cost of around $400000 per resident and 60000 workers will commute daily to the city
        
        In 2016, only 2000 people are employed there
      - Powered by 88000 solar panels in a 20 hectare field
      - Cars are not permitted in this area; roads are narrow and never longer than 70m, allowing cool breezes to flow along them; buildings at the end of roads cause turbulance, pushing air upwards and enhancing circulation
      - International Renewable Energy Agency has its headquarters in Masdar City, and Siemens has a regional headquarters there too
      - Supported by US gov, the WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature) and Greenspace
  - - - $23 billion project located in 600 hectares of reclaimed land near the Yellow Sea, 64 km from Seoul and 11 km from Incheon International Airport
      - Started in 2005, home to 65000 residents and 300000 workers
      - Has an array of sensors controlling heating in houses and monitoring traffic flows but also allowing video conferencing and the delivery of heath care, education and gov services
      - First LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) ceritifed district in South Korea and the largest project ourside North America to be included in the LEED Neighborhood Development Pilot Programme
      - Part of the Incheon Free Economic Zone - a special economic zone with minimized regulations and maximized business incentives and opportunities for foreign investments
        
        Exceptional measures such as tax breaks to encourage foreign investment, foreign exchange circulation, foreign language service, labor flexibility, and the establishement of foreign education and medical institutions
        
        Attract investments in high end industries and global services
      - Sondo City
        
        developed in three phases by 2020
        
        1st phase (built by 2008): International Convention Center, Songdo Convensia; 68-storey Northeast Asia Trade Tower; office buildings; deluxe hotels; shopping malls and a golf course
        
        Technology park, Institute of Technology along with other research centers
        
        250 hectares of open space, including the 40 hectare Central Park
        
        All venues within 15 minute walk of the Central Park
        
        Arts center housing a concert hall, an opera house, a museum of Asian contemporary arts
        
        151-Songdo Incheon Tower - developed by a consortium of Samsung, Hyundai and Portman Holdings, was scaled back to 103-storeys, partly as a result of the 2008 financial crisis
        
        Schools and hospitals dedicated to develop medical technologies, with participation from partners such as 3M and Microsoft
        
        Smart techs
        
        TelePresence
        
        Video conferencing from every building
        
        reduces the need for car travels and thus carbon footprints
        
        Plug-in hybrid electric cars buy electricity when it is cheap and store it in batteries
        
        Smart meters measure energy use and there is micro-generation of wind power and photovoltaics
        
        Compact and accessible
        
        25 km of bike lanes
        
        Water conservation measures save 30% of water usage in commercial buildings than average
        
        Info tech reduces energy loss by 30%
- - - - Readily available water (river valleys - cradles of human civilizations)
      - freedom from flooding and natural disasters
      - Relief: flat, gentle, low land (but less easy to defend)
      - Sufficient sunlight (south facing slopes in the northern hemisphere)
      - Rich soils for cultivation and lush pasture for grazing
        
        Intensive wet rice farming in Ganges Valley, India
      - Access to resources, e.g. timber, mineral resources
        
        Johannesburg (gold deposits) and Bloemfontein (diamonds) in South Africa grew on account of their mineral resources
    - - Potential for trade and commerce: proximity to bridges and weirs, a confluence site, a point of navigation and upland gaps
        
        New York, on the mouth of River Hudson; Cairo, meeting point of the African, Asian and European trade routes; Paris on the Seine
      - Tourism
        
        Caribbean Islands and Spanish Coastas
      - Political factors/ government planning
        
        Capital cities such as Brasilia, Ottawa and Canberra; planned cities like Incheon in South Korea for high tech industries
    - - Case Study: New York City
        
        Commercial land use (4%) - intensively used
        
        Focused on two ares - midtown Manhattan (shops - Fifth Avenue, theatres - Broadway, landmark buildings - Empire State) and downtown Manhattan (finance and banking: Wall Street and Stock Exchange)
        
        Industrial land use (4%) - warehouses and factories
        
        South Bronx, southern Queens, western shores of Brooklyn and Staten Island
        
        Residential land use
        
        Low density residences (largest use of city land)
        
        Staten Island, eastern Queens, southern Brooklyn and eastern Bronx
        
        Medium to high density residences (12%; more than two thirds of the city's housing units)
        
        highest density residences are mainly in Manhattan
        
        Public facilities and institutions (7%) are spread throughout the city
        
        Open space
        
        1/4 occupied by public parks, playgrounds, nature reserves, cemeteries, amusement areas, beaches, stadia and golf courses
        
        8% classified vacant
        
        Staten Island has the most vacant land, Manhattan the least
      - Residential, industrial, services, open space, recreational, transport routes
      - 'Cumultaive causation' of urban functions: Hong Kong
        
        7 million +
        
        Historically administrative
        
        Financial/retail center
        
        Airline/transport hub
    - - A range of indicators: settlement size, number of jobs, wealth, sphere of influence, etc.
        
        Hamlets - a small collection of farms and houses, have the most basic services and facilities, low-order goods
      - Dispersed, isolated individual households
      - Village, market towns
        
        Wider range and more specialized - higher order
        
        Draw customs from surrounding hamlets
      - Cities and megacities
        
        Megacities - cities with a population of over 10 million people
        
        Reasons for growth: economic growth, rural-urban migration and high rates of natural increase
        
        Cities are associated with a young population structure due to economic migration
        
        Tokyo is the first megacity
      - Metacities and megalopolis
        
        BosNYWash - Boston, New York and Washington DC
      - Generalizations
        
        More small settlements than large ones
        
        Sphere of influence, threshold, and range of low and high order goods increase higher up the hierarchy
  - - - Land price decreases away from the most central area of a city (Central Business District)
        
        CBD - most accessible by public transport; small amount of land
    - - Central shopping areas/high streets
        
        High order goods with a large range, threshold and sphere of influence; increasingly pedestrianized
      - Shopping parades
        
        cluster of shops selling low order goods nearby residential areas
      - Small, independent outlets
        
        Low order, wide variety of convenience goods
      - Superstores/retail parks
        
        built on greenfield suburban sites with ample parking space, good accessibilty by private transport and plenty of space for expansion
        
        Large, one-stop outlets near residential areas
    - - Features
        
        Vertical zoning/multi-storey development due to high land values
        
        Concentrated retailing and offices
        
        Convenient public transport
        
        low residential land use
        
        High pedestrian and traffic flows
        
        Functional segregation/internal zoning (clustering of similar businesses)
      - PLVI - Peak Land Value Intersection: the highest rated, busiest ad most accessible part of the CBD
      - Refer to diagram in textbook p343
    - - Inner city areas close to railways
      - Brownfield suburban sites near airports
      - Away from residential zones due to regulation
      - Reasons for industries found in cities
        
        Need skilled labor such as medical instruments
        
        Need access to CBD such as fashion accessories
        
        Need urban market for distribution such as newspapers
  - - - 32% of world's urban pop; 78% of urban pop in LICs
      - Located on undesirable land: steep slopes, floodplains, edge of town locations, or close to major industrial complexes
      - Lack durable housing, sufficient living space, access to imrpoved water and improved sanitation facilities and secure tenure
    - - Dual economy
        
        Formal economy (upper economic circuit) - foreign owned and provide goods and services for an elite pop
        
        Informal economy (lower economic circuit) - small scale, locally owned and labor intensive
      - Bazaar economy
        
        Small trade and service establishments and craft workshops; family enterprises
        
        Intense competition
        
        Low prices - low standards of living
        
        Producing cheap goods and services for low-income households
      - Street economy
        
        Hawkers, shoe-shiners, prositutes, beggars and thieves
      - Characteristics compared to formal sectors see p347 and 348
      - Exploitation of the poor by the rich
      - Relieving poverty - more opps; basic needs strategy
- - - - Caused buy rural-to-urban migration, higher rates of natural increase, or the reclassification of rural areas as urban areas, for example with urban sprawl
      - A cycle of urbanization, suburbanization, counter-urbanization and re-urbanization
    - - Case Study: Shanghai
        
        Transport Infrastructure
        
        Waterports and Airports
        
        Yangshan Deep-Water Port
        
        North port area completed
        
        Busiest port in the world: annual cargo of 590 million tonnes
        
        Two international airports and 4 airport terminals
        
        over 70 million passengers every year
        
        Pudong International Airport is the world's third largest in terms of cargo
        
        Railways
        
        400 km long and has 13 metro lines, carry over 5 million passengers daily
        
        25% of the city center is covered by railway stations, serving 40% of the city centre's population
        
        Journey times shortened - e.g. to Hangzhou journey time fell from 90 mins to 30 mins
        
        Transport networks
        
        The Urban Expressway Network
        
        3000 km of roads, 200km of expressway
        
        23 crossing facilities for the Huangpu River
        
        over 1000 bus lines and 17000 buses
        
        Targets
        
        Public transport between any two parts of the city centre should take less than 60 minutes
        
        Public transport between any two parts of the city centre should take just one bus ride
        
        Access to water and sanitation
        
        Huangpu River and Yangtze River are the two main surface water sources
        
        Nearly 80% of Shanghai's waste water is treated; 70% of households have access to sewerage services
        
        Water stress resulted from agricultural practices contaminating the urban water system
        
        Low capacity of sewage system leads to industrial and residential waste being discharged directly into rivers
        
        Saltwater intrusion in winter and early spring dry season
        
        Qingcaosha Reservoir built to combat the need for more fresh water
        
        Waste treatment
        
        Incineration and generating electrcity at 'waste to energy' plants and the demand for such incinerators is rising rapidly
        
        Incinerator next to Laogang, China's largest landfill site, takes in up to 9000 tonnes a day
        
        Burned at high temps to destroy toxins; this heats water to produce steam that drives turbines to generate electricity
        
        wastes used to end up in landfills and are unregulated
        
        Shanghai produces the most household rubbish in China - 22000 tonnes/day
        
        Access to telecommunications
        
        One of the first centres in China to develop telecommunications services
        
        30% of all the phone lines in China in 1949
        
        State-owned cmpanies such as China Telecom, China Mobile and China Unicom were prevented from forming joint relationships with foreign companies
        
        Gov nurturing and protectionism have provided Shanghai a strong telecommunications base
        
        Critical in attracting high-tech investment into Shanghai
        
        23 million population, double what it was in 1987
        
        the plan is to turn Shanghai into an international economic hub - 'a seaport, an airport and an information port'
        
        11 satellite towns were built to act as growing points around the city and to ease pressure on the city
      - Increased need to provide access to clean water, sanitation, waste disposal as urban areas grow to reduce the risk of diseases
      - Expand transport facilities and telecommunications networks to attract new economic activities
      - Failure to match pop growth with infrastructure growth result in urban problems
    - - Occurs due to youthful age structure
      - However, less traditional attitudes, more career choices and educational opps for women and the high cost of raising children in cities may lead to low birth/fertility rates
    - - Re-investment of capital into inner city areas, resulting in improvements of residential areas (residential rehabilitation)
      - Commercial redevelopment on brownfield sites
      - displacement of poor people
        
        cannot afford increased prices of housing
        
        young, upwardly mobile pop takes their place
      - New York: Greenwich Village and Brooklyn Heights
    - - Rural-to-urban migration
        
        Prevalent in NICs and LICs
        
        Movement of people away from countrysides to towns and cities
        
        Push factors
        
        Negative features that cause a person to move away from a place
        
        Pull factors
        
        Positive features that attract a person to move to a place
      - Re-urbanization
        
        Revitaliziation of urban areas and the movement of people back to these areas
        
        Re-urbanization of Barcelona after the 1992 Olympics
        
        Urban renewal - rehabilitation of city areas that have fallen into decline (urban decay)
        
        Renewal of Manhattan, NYC
    - - Suburbanization
        
        outward expansion of towns and cities, largely due to imrprovements in transport system
        
        The growth of middle-class, residential suburbs
        
        Boom in private housebuilding in the early 20th century
      - Counter-urbanization
        
        movement of people away from larger urban areas to smaller urban areas, new towns, new estates, commuter towns, or villages on the edge of the city or urban-rural fringe or beyond the city limits
        
        Better environments, closer sense of community, a safer location in countrysides
      - Urban sprawl
        
        Uncontrolled growth of urban areas at their edges; suggests that urban areas grow in an unchecked fashion
        
        Greenbelts help prevent urban sprawl
        
        Seoul, Tokyo, and Mexico City
  - - - Exhaustion of natural resources
      - increased costs of production, including labor and raw materials
      - Automation and new technology (structural unemployment)
      - The introduction of rival products
      - Fall in demand - cyclical unemployment
      - Overseas competition (from NICs)
      - Rationalization - the reorganization of a company/economic sector in order to increase its operating efficiency; in human resource context it is referred to as discharge of an employee when his job ceases to exist
      - The removal of a subsidy
      - Lack of capital
    - - Positive - when industries reduce their workforce to increase productivity through mechanization and rationalization, making them more competitive
      - Negative - When particular industries decline without any compensating rise in productivity
    - - the growth of high-tech industries, small firms and service sectors (tertiarization)
- - - - Most congested morning is Monday and most congested evening is Friday
    - - Noise pollution may cause people to move from cities of high pop density to quieter environments
      - Associated with physical and mental diseases
      - The USA
        
        More than 30 million workers are exposed to excessive occupational noise annually
        
        Street noise exposure is estimated to account for 4% of the average individual's annual noise dose
        
        Manhattan has the highest noise levels
        
        EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) has established 70 dB as a safe average for a 24-hour day
  - - - 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympic Games caused a property boom in some of the more central favelas
        
        Vidigal favela was dominated by drug gangs but transformed by the potential of the Olympics
        
        Land values rose threefold in three years and land speculators bought properties; outsiders and real estate agencies moved in
        
        Police made the area safe
        
        Average house price increased by 165% between 2012 and 2016
        
        Activists claimed that developers displaced more than 170000 people
        
        Favela do Metro, home to 1000 residents, was destroyed to make room for parking facilities
    - - Occupy Wall Street, New York, was an anti-capitalist protest focusing on inequality
        
        'We are the 99 percent'
      - Occupy St Paul's in 2012 was a similar movement in London
    - - an area in a prime site for development, which can affect of lives of millions
        
        connected by the city's all three railways
      - Developer: Mukesh Mehta
        
        wants to develop Dharavi into an international business destination
        
        Might need to displace up to 1 million people to the edge of city such as Mankhurd where there are few economic prospects
      - Home to thousands of microindustires, generating $650 million annually; as much as 90% of employment
      - Informal city - a place to escape poverty instead of a slum sink
      - One success was the building of Four Seasons Hotel; there is a shortage of hotel rooms in India
    - - Green space are important for physical and mental wellbing
        
        Mumbai has less than 2 m2 open space per resident; it has the second highest childhood obesity rate in India, 68% of children in Mumbai are said to have sedentary lifestyles
      - Water-bodies and vegetation
        
        Bangalore had 280 lakes in 1960 but now there are fewer than 70, many are biologically dead
        
        Between 2010 and 2014, over 50000 trees in Bangalore were cut down to make way for road widening
      - Creation of open space: Seoul and London
        
        The creation of Queen Elizabeth Park following the 2012 Olympic Games
  - - - Concentrated in the poorest working-class neighborhoods of the most urbanized and industrialized areas
      - Higher incidence in more deprived areas
      - Typical profile of offenders - refer to p371
    - - Case Study: Barcelona
        
        Greatest levels of deprivation are in two areas: Inner city district of El Ravel, associated with poor quality housing built during the industrial era; edge of town locations of Can Peguera and La Mina where social housings were built to accomodate migrants in the 1960s
        
        Barcelona deindustrialized rapidly in the 1970s and 1980s
        
        Unemployment reached 20% in the 1980s
        
        Many locations become derelict
        
        Entry to the EU in 1985 and the creation of the Single Market in 1993
        
        New Strategy: halt economic decline, create visible signs of growth and foster renewed confidence
        
        1992 Olympic Games and 2004 Universal Forum of Cultures were used to develop the city's infrastructure - port, airport, road and railways
        
        Successes
        
        Provide new housing - Athletes' Village built on an abandoned factory site
        
        employment increased by over 50% between 1995 and 2008 with 900000 new jobs: more than 70% of jobs in the service sector
        
        Regeneration and development at the same time
        
        Zona Franca, Spanish largest and most dynamic industrial estate
        
        technical parks for high-tech industries contributed to Europe's 'sunrise belt'