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Speciation on 5 Islands (Bartholomew (Characteristics of Island (The…

- - - - Enhanced voicebox allows high frequency screeching
      - Emits stinky gas
      - Symbiotic with Bam
      - Short fur
      - 30cm wingspan
      - Lives in colonies
    - - Trophic Level: Akyle would remain as a omnivorous secondary consumer (preys on fruits, small land creatures, scavenges decaying meat), in terms of trophic level and diet.
      - Relationships: Its niche may slightly alter, as less predators survive on Berk and more prey is available. Its competition between other secondary / tertiary consumers is limited, due to a range in diet and overwhelming population numbers (large colonies).
      - Speciation: (over generations, Akyle would diverge into one specific species, adapted for the dense forest and humid environment)
  - - - Very fast and agile
      - Keen sight
      - Able to light up voluntarily
      - Tough skull
      - UV emitting saliva
      - Keen olfactory senses
      - Symbiotic with Akyle
      - Adult grows to 3m
        
        RECESSIVE GENE / TRAIT - Adult grows to 1.5m
    - - Trophic Level: Although Bam would most likely remain as a tertiary / third-order consumer, it may still be vulnerable to larger predatory organisms such as the Spiked Dragon (see food web). Its diet would remain carnivorous, preying on smaller organisms living in trees and on the forest ground.
      - Relationships: Biodiversity is extremely high on the island of Berk. This leads to extensive competition for food sources between secondary and tertiary consumers, which may result in decreasing numbers of such predators. However, Berk provides as a suitable environment for symbiotic behaviour between Bam and Akyle - this would definitely contribute towards their success and help sustain both populations over future generations.
      - Speciation: (over generations, Bam would diverge into one specific species, adapted for manoeuvring in a dense forest habitat)
- - - - Enhanced voice-box allows high frequency screeching
      - Emits stinky gas
        
        RECESSIVE GENE / TRAIT - unable to emit gas
      - Symbiotic with Bam
      - Short fur
      - 30cm wingspan
        
        RECESSIVE GENE / TRAIT - 50cm wingspan
      - Lives in colonies
    - - Trophic level: Akyle will most likely remain as a secondary consumer, with a diet consisting of smaller land / air creatures, fruits and decaying meat. However, depending on which region of the island the population of Akyle lives, diet and trophic level may differ (e.g. if living in forest interior, Akyle may become extremely reliant on plants and berries).
      - Relationships: In forested areas, Akyle will compete with both first-order and second-order consumers for fruits and prey. Since it lives in colonies, it has a major 'number' advantage over solitary organisms which leads to higher chance of successful reproduction even if food sources are limited. This environment is suitable for a symbiotic relationship with Bam - loud screeching is effective for disorienting prey in forests, and 50cm wings are suitable for long-distance hunting on flat ground.
      - Speciation: (over generations, Akyle would diverge into two or more species, adapted for dense forest habitats, cave systems as well as open beaches)
  - - - Able to light up voluntarily
        
        RECESSIVE GENES / TRAITS - Unable to light up
      - Very fast and agile
        
        RECESSIVE GENES / TRAITS - Just fast, not agile
      - Keen sight
      - Tough skull
      - UV emitting saliva
      - Keen olfactory senses
      - Symbiotic with Akyle
      - Adults grow up to 3m
        
        RECESSIVE GENES / TRAITS - Adults grow up to 1.5m
    - - Relationships: On Yanny, a diversity of apex predators creates competition between these higher order consumers. Bam heavily relies on abundance of prey in order to sustain it throughout its early youth and adulthood. Therefore, by symbiotically hunting with Akyle, Bam is more likely able to develop healthily and reproduce successfully (offspring then inherit these genes etc.)
      - Speciation: (over generations, Bam would diverge into two or more species, adapted for dense forest habitats and open beaches / caves)
      - Trophic Level: Bam will most likely remain as a tertiary consumer, with several higher-order predators posing as a threat (e.g. Spiked Dragon, Land Orca). The diet will change depending on the availability of prey. For example, with an increased number of island guinea pigs, Bam is more likely to obtain a sufficient energy intake over a lifetime.
- - - - Keen olfactory senses
      - Adults grow up to 3m
      - Symbiotic with Akyle
      - Strong Bite
      - Can block sounds out voluntarily
      - Ultra Violet emitting saliva glands
      - Tough bear-like skull
      - Keen sight
      - Very fast and agile
      - Able to light up voluntarily
    - - Relationships: As previously stated, Bams numbers will be minuscule compared to other islands therefore finding a mate is increasing difficult. Since many other apex predators are more suited to this environment, it is impossible for Bam to compete against them. With no mating partners, competition within the species is created.
      - Speciation: There are not enough numbers for Bam to survive even two generations therefore speciation most likely will not occur
      - Trophic Level: Bam is most likely going to die out as it is an apex predator that relies heavily on its symbiotic furthermore being an apex predator, Bam needs ridiculously large amounts of food to sustain itself and its young.
    - - Adults only grow up to 1.5m
      - Just fast and not agile
      - Unable to light up voluntarily
  - - - Trophic Level: Akyle is most likely going to die out as both its dominant and recessive genes do not come into great use against this island harsh conditions. Furthermore, since its symbiotic did not survive the chances of survival for Akyle are very small.
      - Speciation: There are not enough numbers for Akyle to survive even two generations therefore speciation most likely will not occur
      - Relationships: With reduced numbers of Akyle, reproduction and sustenance of the species is incredibly difficult. Also, competition within species is created.
    - - 50cm wingspan
      - Long Fur
      - Unable to emit foul gases
    - - Live in coloines
      - Short fur
      - Enhanced voice-box allows for high frequency sound production
      - 30cm wingspan
      - Symbiotic with Bam
      - Emits stinky gases
- - - - Genes are determined as dominant/recessive according to inheritance patterns
      - Diploid organisms can have two different alleles for the same gene. When expressed, organisms consequently have various traits (like eye and hair colour)
      - Alleles are either dominant/recessive, and dominant alleles are always expressed, while recessive alleles are only expressed in the absence of dominant alleles
      - The expression of dominant and recessive genes provides variation in a population
    - - According to Mendellian inheritance, recessive and dominant alleles will be expressed according to the ratio 1:3 (recessive:dominant)
      - Inheritance of recessive and dominant alleles can be predicted by using Punnett squares and pedigree charts
      - Inheritance is random and while it can be predicted, the predictions may not always be correct because other factors may be present
    - - DNA replication is semi-conservative but mutations (errors in the replication of DNA) may occur
        
        Mutation can be described as spontaneous or induced; it provides a source of genetic variation (genetic differences between populations/species)
  - - - Definition: the role an organism plays in an ecosystem (the full set of conditions, resources and interactions it requires or can use)
      - Species may be located in the same 'niche' or have overlapping resources (in which case they have identical needs)
        
        Species then must compete to succeed in the environment or partition resources to avoid direct competition (since resources are limited)
        
        This is possible through evolution, habitat changes and behavioural alterations
    - - Predation
        
        The consumption of prey by predators (transferring nutrients and energy from prey-> predator)
      - Commensalism
        
        A relationship where one organism benefits while the other is not affected (helped/harmed)
      - Symbiotic
        
        A relationship where both species benefit (sometimes called mutualism) for food, defensive or dispersive purposes
      - Parasitism
        
        A relationship where one organism benefits but the other is harmed (or dies)
      - Competitive
        
        The competition between individuals/populations for a resource (within or between species)
      - Decomposition
        
        A relationship where detritivores/decomposers break down dead matter into simpler organic forms for food
    - - Definition: A trophic level is defined as the level in a food chain occupied by organisms in an ecosystem
      - There are 5 trophic levels excluding detritivores
        
        primary producers: autotrophs which used the sun's energy to produce produce their own food source
        
        primary consumers: herbivores which gain energy by eating primary producers
        
        secondary consumers: carnivores & omnivores that gain energy by eating either only other animals or both animals and plants respectively
        
        tertiary consumers: carnivores & omnivores that eat secondary consumers
        
        apex predators: animals at the top of the food chain with no natural predators
        
        detritivores/decomposers (organisms that consume dead plant/animal material into simpler compounds)
        
        Only about 10% of energy consumed is converted into biomass (in other words, much of the energy of prey are lost as heat and movement)
    - - Food chains are linear sequences of the transfer of energy & nutrients from organisms that consume one another (with each organism occupying a specific trophic level)
        
        consumption of an organism by another is expressed as a link in the food chain
        
        food chains, however, are not always accurate because transfer of energy is difficult to show with only linear lines
      - Food webs are graphs that realistically show the trophic relationships between organisms
        
        For both food chains and webs, arrows indicate the direction of energy transfers
  - - - Dominant genes
        
        30cm wingspan
        
        Enhanced voice-box allows high frequency screeching
        
        Emits stinky gas
        
        Lives in colony
        
        Symbiotic with Bam
        
        Keen hearing
        
        Nocturnal
        
        Short fur
        
        Long ears
        
        Two pairs of wings
      - Recessive genes
        
        Larger 50cm wingspan
        
        Unable to screech loudly
        
        Doesn’t emit stinky gas
        
        Lives solitary lives
        
        Competitive with Bam
        
        Extremely acute hearing
        
        Diurnal
        
        Long fur
        
        Floppy ears
        
        One large set of wings
      - Niche
        
        Trophic level
        
        Secondary consumer & scavenger
        
        Habitat
        
        Geographic range: anywhere except Arctic climate
        
        Colonies prefer to live in caves
        
        Diet
        
        Omnivorous
        
        Relationships
        
        Symbiotic relationship with Bam
        
        Preys on Tree Worm, Fanning Bird, berry bushes
        
        Source of food for Bibacs and Spiked Dragons
    - - Genetics & Inheritance
        
        Dominant genes
        
        Very fast & agile
        
        Symbiotic with Akyle
        
        Keen sight
        
        Ability to light up voluntarily
        
        Nocturnal
        
        Solitary
        
        Tough skull
        
        Can block out noises voluntarily
        
        UV emitting saliva
        
        Keen olfactory senses
        
        Short fur
        
        Adults grow to 3m
        
        Recessive genes
        
        Only fast, not agile
        
        Competitive with Akyle
        
        Limited sight (can see up to 50 m in the dark)
        
        Lights up only in defence
        
        Diurnal
        
        Social
        
        Relatively weaker skull
        
        Cannot block out noises
        
        Normal saliva
        
        Limited olfactory senses
        
        Long fur
        
        Adults grow to 1.5m
      - Niche
        
        Habitat
        
        Caves, underground burrows
        
        Diet
        
        Carnivorous
        
        Trophic level
        
        Tertiary consumer
        
        Relationships
        
        Symbiotic with Akyle
        
        Preys on Fanning Bird
        
        Host for 100-year-pest
- - - - The growth of tall flora would also be affected because strong winds may uproot plants or offer challenges to vertical growth
  - - - Diet
        
        The Akyle is an omnivore because its diet consists of fruits, decaying meat, Poisonous Carrots and Tree Worms
        
        The Akyle's diet may change to be primarily composed of plant matter because competition for Fanning Bird is evident in the food web
      - Relationships
        
        The Akyle is involved in a symbiotic relationship with predators of higher trophic levels (like Bam)
        
        The most favourable traits for hunting (like loud screeches) will probably be retained by the species
        
        The Akyle will probably continue its symbiotic relationship with Bam on this island because cooperation is the most effective way of hunting
      - Trophic level
        
        The Akyle can behave as a mixture of secondary consumers and scavengers
        
        The Akyle will probably consume animals/plants from a variety of trophic levels because there are insufficient primary consumers and producers as sources of food on which they can be entirely dependent.
      - Habitat
        
        The Akyle is able to survive in any form of climate, except that of the Artic
        
        The dominant short fur, long ears and recessive large (50cm) wingspan traits are well suited for the humid climate of Ruff because it can conveniently regulate temperature by heat radiation.
      - Overall, the niche of the Akyle will probably be slightly adjusted on the island of Ruff. The species will be able to continue many behavioural features like hibernating during the extreme cold and fulfilling a symbiotic relationship with Bam. It may be forced to alter its trophic level to that of one higher to widen possible sources of nutrients and energy, yet will probably resort to consuming organisms of lower trophic levels (since they are more likely to be abundnat on the island according to the 10% rule of energy transfer).
    - - Favourable dominant genes
        
        Short Fur
        
        The population will probably retain this trait because short hair would permit body temperature to be regulated more conveniently. Such a characteristic would also allow them to require little vegetation for camaflouge.
        
        Voluntarily emits stinky gas
        
        The voluntary emission of stinky gas offers a competitive advantage over other tertiary consumers without this trait, and hence this trait is likely to be prevalent within the population
        
        Enhanced voice box for high frequency screeching
        
        The population of Akyles on Ruff would retain this dominant trait because it offers an advantage when hunting (it can scare prey).
        
        Symbiotic with Bam
        
        The population of Akyles would continue their symbiotic relationship with the population of Bams because they hunt most effectively through cooperation.
        
        Lives in colonies
        
        The population of Akyles would populate Ruff as colonies because predators they will be more vulnerable to predators individually. Hunting will also be more effective if it is conducted collectively.
        
        Keen hearing and long ears are advantageous for hunting because prey can be identified with greater ease during nighttime.
        
        Nocturnal
        
        The population of Akyles on Ruff will probably continue being nocturnal predators because the UV emission function of Bam's saliva (a symbiote) is most effective at identifying prey during night (when the UV light will not be confused for radiation from the sun). It may also be easier to hunt when prey are sleeping or cannot interpret their surroundings well.
        
        Two pairs of wings
        
        Despite strong winds, flight will continue to be an essential component of Akyles (for predation, scavenging, transportation and evasion of predators). Since a pair of wings offers greater control and agility during flight, this trait is likely to be preserved by the population of Akyles on Ruff
      - Favourable recessive genes
        
        50cm wingspan
        
        There are many reasons why the Akyle species on Ruff would evolve to have a wingspan of 50cm. A larger wingspan would permit more heat to be released through heat radiation (since there is a larger surface area). It may also be beneficial for flight in very windy conditions to glide and create thrust.
    - - There were multiple variations of Akyles in multiple aspects of their species, possibly due to mutations. Although dominant traits will initially outnumber recessive traits, the selection factors of humidity, strong winds, the occurrence of fog, rain, thunder and snow will offer a competitive advantage for organisms with favourable traits, as shown in Genetics & Inheritance. This will provide such organisms with a reproductive advantage; simply because they are more successful. Over a vast period of time, the population of Akyles on Ruff may thus evolve (change their genetic composition) so that only favourable traits are expressed in the entire population. Given that the specified population remains isolated, and more selection factors are applied over a greater time period, they may undergo speciation. This prediction is limited however because other factors may exist.
  - - - Habitat
        
        Bams are able to survive in any climate, and the population of Bams are well-suited for the humidity of the island of Ruff due to their short fur
      - Diet
        
        The species of Bams are carnivorous; their strong teeth and skull well suited for this purpose.
        
        However, since Fanning Bird is the primary food source on the island, it may be partition its resources
      - Trophic level
        
        As Bams are tertiary consumers, they have very few predators. This position in the trophic level however may be disadvantageous because of the restricted availability of prey.
      - Relationships
        
        The population of Bams on the island of Ruff will probably continue their symbiotic relationship with Akyles, as aforementioned.
    - - Favourable dominant genes
        
        Very fast & agile
        
        Speed and agility are favourable traits because they increase the likelihood of success during pursuit of prey. They also mitigate the necessity of hunting in areas with little vegetation for camouflaging.
        
        Keen visual & olfactory senses
        
        Keen visual and olfactory senses provide a competitive advantage in hunting because they allow prey to be identified more efficiently; particularly since Bams are nocturnal
        
        Tough skull
        
        Tough skulls are favourable traits for Bams because they reduce the frequency of significant injuries.
        
        Can block out noises voluntarily
        
        This is a favourable trait because Bams may suffer injuries while hunting with Akyles. It is best to avoid injury as often as possible because it may need to heal, which requires resources extensively (like nutrients and time)
        
        UV emitting saliva
        
        UV emitting saliva is favourable trait because it increases the probability of success when hunting. Such saliva allows injured animals that have escaped to be tracked with great ease. This trait, in conjunction with keen visual and olfactory senses, make hunting at night feasible.
        
        Short fur
        
        Short fur is advantageous over long fur because the former enables body temperature to be regulated more effectively in a humid climate.
      - Favourable recessive genes
        
        Lights up only in defence
        
        This gene is more favourable than voluntary illumination because the latter is unnecessary. Given the absence of substantially tall trees in the environment of the island, lighting up will probably be superficial when hunting (because the element of surprise is removed). Thus, the benefit of being able to light up only as a defence mechanism outweighs the energy expenditure of possessing the function.
        
        Adults grow to 1.5m
        
        This is a favourable trait because smaller Bams are not required to feed as often and will expend comparatively less energy in most activities
    - - Two variations for body features of Bams are assumed to have been created by mutation. When selection factors are applied to the population, some of the variations are more advantageous. These advantages are sometimes seemingly trivial, yet they give individuals with certain traits a reproductive advantage. The favourable traits are then passed down to succeeding generations. Given substantial time, the population of Bams on the island of Ruff will probably evolve so that the favourable traits are identifiable in individuals.
- - - - Very fast and agile
      - Keen Sight
      - Able to light up voluntarily
      - Tough bear-like skull
      - Ultra Violet emitting saliva glands
      - Keen olfactory senses
      - Adults grow up to 3m
      - Symbiotic with Akyle
      - Strong Bite
      - Can block sounds out voluntarily
    - - Trophic Level: Bam will remain a top carnivore on Bartholomew, with several other apex predators as threats and / or competition (e.g. Spiked Dragon, Land Orca and 100 Year Old Pest). The diet will change depending on the availability of prey. For example, with more small rodents on the land the more food for Bam and the more Akyles there is the less energy Bam has to use to catch prey.
      - Relationships: On Bartholomew, Bam heavily relies on more prey and less competition in order to sustain its early ages through to adulthood. Therefore, by hunting with colonies of Akyle rather than solitary hunting, Bam is more likely able to develop healthily and reproduce offsprings with the best genes.
      - Speciation: Bam would likely involuntarily diverge into two or more species, adapted for dense forest habitats and cave systems and for open grasslands.
    - - Just fast not agile
      - Adults only grow up to 1.5m
      - Unable to light itself up voluntarily
  - - - Trophic level: Akyle will be secondary consumer, with a diet consisting of smaller land / air creatures, fruits and/or meat left behind by its symbiotic Bam. However, depending on which region of the island the population of Akyle lives, diet and trophic level may differ (e.g. if living in forest interior, Akyle may become herbivorous rather than omnivorous).
      - Relationships: In forested areas, Akyle will compete with both first-order and second-order consumers for fruits and prey. Since it lives in colonies, it has a major 'number' advantage over solitary organisms which leads to higher chance of successful reproduction even if food sources are limited. This environment is suitable for a symbiotic relationship with Bam - loud screeching is effective for disorienting prey in forests, and 50cm wings are suitable for long-distance hunting on flat ground.
      - Speciation: Akyle would likely involuntarily diverge into two or more species, adapted for dense forest habitats, cave systems and for open grasslands
    - - Symbiotic with Bam
      - Enhanced voice-box allows high frequency sounds
      - Emits stinky gas
      - Short fur
      - 30 cm wingspan
      - Lives in colonies
    - - Long fur
      - 50 cm wingspan
      - Unable to emit foul gases