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Bio 20: Friendship Science by Meghan Rennie (Upon observation, it can be…

- - - - Sulfur Cycle
        
        The Try-Hard Friend: What does the Sulfur Cycle even DO? It wants to contribute, but nobody is very aware of this cycle. When they are, it's only because of its contribution to acid rain, or the weird smell it causes. Sulfur is important, as it contributes to plant growth and the production of proteins, but sulfur is quite similar to other substances (needs to be fixed by bacteria, necessary ingredient in plant growth, etc.) It needs to vamp itself up if it wants to be liked more.
        
        SUlfate (SO4) is miscible in water, and gets absorbed from there by plants and algae. Decomposers return sulfur to the atmosphere or soil when organisms die, in the form of hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Acid precipitation brings atmospheric sulfur back to Earth, where it can get trapped in sediment until it is released by geologic uplift/volcanoes/seafloor vents/ upwelling in groundwater/ mining/ fossil fuel use, returned to the air as SO2. Sulfate reducers turn sulfate to sulfide, and sulfate oxidizers take sulfide and turn it back to sulfate or to elemental sulfur.
      - Water Cycle
        
        The Popular Friend. Even children know about the water cycle. Water is visible during most of its cycle stages (storage in water bodies, condensation in clouds, precipitation in rain/snow/etc), and is an obvious part of our lives even outside of the bio lab. It's an obvious limiting factor in an ecosystem, and provides storage for other cycling materials. Compared to other geochemical cycles, it's basically a celebrity.
        
        Water stored in ocean (hydrosphere) evaporates in to the atmosphere, exists as a vapour and can be breathed in/out. Condensation into a cloud eventually leads to precipitation. Returning to the lithosphere, water can find itself in many places in its cycle. It could land in a cold-climate area and be stored as snow/ice, which could eventually melt and become runoff, or it could fall into an already-existent body of water. It is able to seep deeper into the lithosphere and become groundwater, which in turn could be tapped by humans and brought to the surface again for use. Consumption by an organism can lead to use in photosynthesis (H2O becomes O2), or in other means. It will otherwise exit the individual with other waste.
      - Carbon Cycle
        
        The Dependable Friend. Carbon makes up all organic lifeforms. It's a part of the air we breathe, and a component of our energy-creation. It provides so much for us, and how do we treat it? We put it all into the atmosphere and blame it for our climate change. It may be true, but it wasn't the carbon cycle's idea to make it that way. Carbon deserves better, but it's so good to us, so we don't want to give it up.
        
        Cellular respiration converts oxygen to CO2. In turn, photosynthesis converts it back. The carbon is used to produce glucose, which, among other things, is used to manufacture more organism mass. When the autotroph containing the carbon is eaten, it is transferred to the consumer. When one of these organisms dies, its decomposition releases carbon into the
        into the ground. Waste also transfers carbon to the ground. Death also releases atmospheric carbon. Atmospheric carbon is also produced by the burning of fossil fuels.
      - Nitrogen Cycle
        
        The Outgoing Friend: Nitrogen is a major component in DNA, so it's pretty important. Luckily for us, it's always hanging around (N2 in the atmosphere, NH3 from nitrogen-fixing bacteria, N02 or NO3 from nitrifying bacteria/plants/lightning). Unluckiky, despite its constant prescence, it can be hard to pin down. Like a friend with a busy scedule, it takes effort to find nitrogen in a state that's free to "hang out". It's too busy being a friend to everybody else.
        
        Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) can be fixed by lightning or a nitrogen-fixing prokaryote (found in water/soil or attached to plant root systems). This will turn it either into NO3 (lightning)or ammonia/NH3 (bacteria). When fixed by lightning, NO3 is later rained down into the soil. Ammonium, made by the bacteria, is already in the soil, and is then nitrified into NO3 or NO2 by different bacteria (nitrifying backteria). These three forms (No3, NO2, NH3) are consumable by plants. Other orgamisms get the nitrogen by consuming plants, and over time, decomposers create ammonia in the soil from waste/dead organisms. Denitrifying bacteria eventually return nitrogen to the atmosphere.
      - Phosphorus Cycle
        
        The Sidekick: Sure, Phosphorus, you MAY help with plant growth and macromolecule formation, but we all know Nitrogen is the real star, here. You don't even interact with the atmosphere! Your cycling is slow and boring, and you can cause eutrophication. You're a tag-along cycle and need to step it up.
        
        Phosphorus stays out of the atmosphere. It can be found in great quantities in its inorganic form, mostly in sedimentary rock at the bottom of a body of water (dead organisms containing phosphorus become sediment over time, and this is where the phosphorus comes from). It remains there for an obscene amount of time, unless the sediment erodes (geologic uplift exposes rock, weathering leads to erosion). Then the phosphorus is dissolved into water/soil and can be used by plants, and therefore enters the food web. Decomposers keep the phosphorus cycling by dissolving it back into the water/soil.
  - - - Excretory
        
        The Try-Hard Friend The excretory system knows it's important to let things go. It gets rid of waste, and although its methods seem a little haphazard, it has the strength to do what no other friends want to (although the digestive system will help a bit, too), so we forgive it for doing things in a roundabout way. You do you, Excretory. You do you.
        
        Glomerulus into bowman's capsule: Spits out everything except for some big proteins, RBCc, and other stuff too big to fit.
        Proximal convoluted tubue: Nevermind! Let's grab almost everything out of the nephron and pull it back into the blood because we need it
        Descending Loop of Henle: Water water water, into the nephrom, diffusing out because of the . . .
        Ascending Limb: Na+ (and Cl+ that follows it) heading into the filtrate
        Distal Convoluted Tubule: Wait, ew, there's still gross blood stuff, let's spit it out into the filtrate real quick
        Collecting duct: Water water water (pt 2)
        Then filtrate leaves the nephron, into the renal pelvis, out of the ureter, into the bladder, out of the urethra.
      - Respiratory
        
        The Sidekick Friend Take a second and just . . . breathe. It's something we do most of the time without noticing, but it's important. The respiratory system is here to provide us with oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange, so cellular respiration can take place and organisms can keep functioning. It may not take centre stage, but it plays an important role in the body. It hangs back and allows the other systems to do their jobs, being as flashy as they want. The respiratory system doesn't mind. As long as that diaphram and those external intercostal muscles keep moving, it's happy.
        
        The oral/nasal cavities are connected to the clap clap pharynx! The pharynx is connected to the clap clap trachea! (and larynx and epiglottis). The trachea's connected to the clap clap bronchi! The bronchi are connected to the clap clap bronchioles! The bronchioles are connected to the clap clap alveoli! The alveoli are surrounded by clap clap capillary nets! And oxygen attaches to clap clap hemoglobin! And CO2 attaches to clap clap bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)! And that's how they get through the clap clap body! And that's the circulatory system so I'm gonna stop clap clap typing!
        
        Inspiration occurs when the diaphram contracts and the external intercostal muscles pull up/out. Air rushes in to fill the thoracic cavity, because pressure inside the cavity is now lower than the outsid pressure and needs to be stabilised. The opposite happens in expiration, except that the intercostal muscles arent involved (unless it's really forced. Then internal muscles pull down).
      - Digestive/Muscular
        
        The Popular Friend Munch munch, it's time for lunch! Where would be we without the digestive system? Organisms receive nutrients and energy through consumption, and therefore need this system to run everything else! Sure, other body systems are important, but they don't stand in the forefront the way this guy does. We notice when we're hungry or too full. We actively seek out food, for pleasure and survival. No other system receives love the way the digestive system does.
        
        ALIMENTARY CANAL: Oral cavity > esophagus > cardiac sphincter > stomach > pyloric sphincter > duodenum > rest of small intestine > large intestine/ colon > rectum > anus. Food does not enter the salivary glands, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, or appendix, so they are considered (more or less) accessory organs.
      - Muscular
        
        The Dependable Friend The Muscular system allows movement, and none of the other systems would be able to function without that! Aside from movement of materials within the body, the muscular system allows an organism to move to get food (helps digestive system) and exercise (health helps various systems). And all of this in exchange for some proteins and nutrients?Sounds like a good trade-off to us.
        
        Terms
        
        myofibril: actin and myosin together in one long strand
        
        sarcoplasmic reticulum: smooth endoplasmic reticulum stores Ca+ for use in muscle movement
        
        Muscle fibre: 1 muscle cell
        
        sarcolemma: membrane around sarcomere
        
        Sarcomere: basic unit of myofilaments working together
        
        muscle fibre bundle: section of muscle. contains sarcomeres, blood vessels, and nerves.
        
        myofilament: name for actin and myosin
        
        z-line: dark line where the ends of sarcomeres align. only in striated muscles
        
        myosin heads attach to actin because calcium moves the troponin out of the way (revealing tropomyosin). They flex, the actin moves, and contraction occurs! This uses up ATP
        
        Types of cells
        
        skeletal: only somatic muscle cell. found all around the bones. striated and tubular, has MANY nuclei instead of just one (like the others)
        
        smooth: no striations. tapered at ends. found in organs. all wavy and funky-looking
        
        cardiac: in the heart. striated and tubular and branchy and fun
      - Lymphatic and Circulatory
        
        The Mom Friend The Lymphatic and Circulatory systems are the responsible pair that clean up after everyone else. The Circulatory system makes sure everyone is fed and cleaned (transport of necessities/waste), and the Lymphatic system takes care of the rest. Important material left behind throughout the body? Lymph transports it to the heart. Bacteria/viruses snuck in? White blood cells will take care of it, no complaints! Thanks, Mrs. and Mrs. Body Systems.
        
        Lymphatic
        
        WBC
        
        B cells: Make antibodies that detect previously-known invaders, helping incapacitate them. The following are blood types, and their antibodies explain what blood types they attack
        
        B: has B antigens, attacks A antigens
        
        AB: has both, attacks none
        
        A: has A antigens on it, and attacks B antigens
        
        O: has none, attacks both
        
        pos/neg: negative will attack positive, not vice versa
        
        Helper T cells: identify the evil guys like a detective
        
        B-cells: create antibodies needed to identify
        
        suppressor t cells: tels people to calm down
        
        Killer T cells: destroys infected cells
        
        Macrophages: "patrol" the body, consume and breakdown harmful invaders
        
        Circulatory
        
        Parts
        
        Capillary
        
        Smallest, all throughout body, extremely low bp, delivers blood to tissues, sphincters control bloodflow, point of oxygen transfer, walls 1 cell thick
        
        Vein:
        
        Medium, close to skin, medium bp, carries blood to heart, valves ensure blood flows one way, oxygen-poor except for pulmonary vein, muscle walls (not as thick as artery)
        
        Lymph Duct
        
        medium, thin-walled and free-flowing, its job is to pick up plasma and white blood cells and return them to the heart
        
        Artery
        
        Biggest, deep below skin, highest bp, carry blood away from heart, no sphincters or valves (hi bp is what kees blood going forward), oxygen-rich except for pulmonary artery
  - - - The Outgoing Friend The Hydrosphere is a bit up in everybody's business. It has links links to fast and slow carbon cycling, the water cycle allows it to reach into the territory of other 'spheres, and it covers roughly 75% of the Earth. It likes to spread out, and have a little bit to do with everything, and we can't blame it.
    - - The Popular Friend Everybody loves spending time in the atmosphere. Fast cycling means that most substances pay this 'sphere a visit often and repeatedly. Everything from the smallest action (breathing) to the big (dying/decomposing) returns something to the atmosphere. "Atmosphere" is also the only 'sphere word used in common vernacular--everybody knows about it, everybody loves it.
    - - The Dependable Friend Need to lie down and take a breather? Maybe become sediment and, slowly over generations, transition into a natural gas? The Lithosphere's got you. You're free to hang out for as long as you wish. No biggie.
    - - trophic levels, cohabitation in an ecosystem
        
        Decomposers
        
        The Dependable Friend: If you don't accept me at my worst, you don't deserve me at my best. For decomposers, there's no difference--they'll accept you no matter what. Isn't that comforting?
        
        Apex Predator
        
        The Difficult Friend There aren't a lot of these in the friend group. They'll act like they don't need you, but if even the lowest trophic level is affected, it could ruin them (bioaccumulation, remember?). They're tough to get along with, but they need others, whether they want to admit it or not. Therefore, they're an intrinsic part of the group.
        
        Primary Consumer
        
        The Try-Hard Friend Primary consumers aren't too special. They don't hold an impressive spot on the food chain, they're usually quite benign in appearance/behaviour, and eating them is less efficient than just eating autotrophs (rule of 10). We'd rather cut out the middle-man, but, hey, we respect your place in the food web. It allows carnivores to be as efficient as possible food-wise, and that's something. You get a participation ribbon, at least.
        
        Autotroph
        
        The Popular Friend Autotrophs make perfect introverts. They're fine on their own, producing their own food through photo/chemosynthesis, and they'd prefer not to be involved in other matters. However, almost everybody finds them delicious. Sorry, autotrophs. You're not popular by choice, but all heterotrophs need you survive; to most of us, that means we eat you. Hope we can still be friends!!
      - Energy Transfer
        
        Energy transfers through the biosphere in the same way that substances and materials transfer through geochemical cycles and through body systems. Sharing is caring, and one organism's trash is another organism's treasure. #
  - - - Glycolysis: Occurs in cytoplasm. 1 glucose becomes 2 pyruvate, and creates 2 NADH and 4 ATP, but uses up 2 ATP
        
        Aerobic
        
        Krebs/Citric Acid Cycle: Acetyl COA +Citrate, combone but break down to a C4 molecule, create (per each coenzyme) 4CO2, 6 NADH, 2 ATP, 2 FADH2
        
        ETC: Each NADH becomes 3 ATP, each FADH2 becomes 2 ATP. 34 ATP made altogether. O2 is the final electron acceptor in the chain, and oxygen reduction creates H2O
        
        Transition Reaction: 2 Pyruvate + coenzyme A react to form 2 Acetyl COA and 2 CO2, uses up 2 ATP, makes 2 NADH
        
        Anaerobic (Fermentation) 1 Pyruvate becomes Lactic Acid/Lactate OR Ethanol and CO2. It resupplies NAD+ for Glycolyses
    - - Light-Independent
        
        Calvin-Benson Cycle. 1 CO2, paired with enzyme RuBP, goes through carbon fixation. 2 PGALS are made, and 5/6 times return to cycle to make more RuBP, or 1/6 times create Glucose
      - Light-Dependent
        
        Electron in PS2 (a light-asorbing protein) is energized to move along ETC, H2O breaks up to give PS2 a replacement electron. Excited electron movement generates ATP along ATP Synthase. Excited electron, now tired, swaps with another electron in PS1, which goes on to turn NADP into NADPH.