Please enable JavaScript.
Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.
Design of Everyday Things by Donald A. Norman (Chapter One : The…
Design of Everyday Things by Donald A. Norman
Chapter One : The Psychopathology of Everyday Things
One of the most important principles of design is
visibility
Make sure the correct parts are visible and are able to convey the correct message
i.e. if you have to push a door to open it, make it clear somewhere on the door that indicates that action. This can be done without ruining the aesthetic. Provide natural signals that can be naturally interpreted without the need to be conscious of them
The lack of visibility of the operation of the system in the name of added sophistication can make the system itself harder to use and less efficient
If the user is not able to understand how to operate all the parts of the system, then the amount of effort put to elevate the design is pointless
Affordances
provide to the operations strong clues of the operations of things
Plates = pushing ; knobs= turning; slots = inserting things into; balls = throwing or bouncing; bars = pulling
Complex things need instructions but if simple things need instruction, the design has failed
Design understandability and usability : (1) provide a good conceptual model (2) make things visible
Sometimes conceptual models are confusing because it's made through the eyes of the designer rather than by mental models created by someone who has repetitively used the machine.
The Biggest Mistake : Designers assume that users have the same mental models surrounding how they view the product
If a designer wants the user to be able to properly use the product, there must be a visible structure where all the functions are mapped at in natural relationships and the position of the functions make sense.
(i.e. look at a car. There are over 100 controls in it but it isn't difficult to remember what each of them do after someone shows you once because the positions are so natural)
Mapping
Make sure that the relationship between two objects is obvious. If it isn't, it will be quickly confused and provide more issues than benefits.
Take advantages of physical analogies and cultural standards when designing something
(i.e. to move an object up, move the control up)
Feedback
sending back to the user information about what action has actually been done// shows the user if they have completed the right action or the wrong action
Designing is difficult because it is important for the product to not only be functional and be produced economically, it also has to be aesthetically pleasing, so that people actually buy the product
Chapter 2 : The Psychology of Everyday Actions
If a task appears simple or trivial, then if a person gets it wrong, they blame themselves rather than note an issue in the design of the object
If an error is possible, someone will make it
The designer MUST assume that all possible errors will occur and design to that they can minimize the error as close to zero as possible. Errors should be easy to determine, have minimal consequences, and if possible, their effects should be reversible
The seven stages of action as design aids
Visibility
: User must be able to tell the state of the device and the alternatives for action;
A good conceptual model
: conceptual model given to user must be consistent to the operations of the product and results/ easy to maneuver;
Good mappings
: provide easy to determine relationship between actions and results, between the controls and their effects, and between the system state and what is visible;
Feedback
: The user receives full and continuous feedback about the results of actions
The seven questions to ask when designing// How easily can one :
Determine the function of the device?
Tell what actions are possible?
Determine Mapping from intention to physical movement?
Perform the action?
Tell if system is in desired state?
Determine mapping from system state to interpretation?
Tell what state the system is in?
A major aspect of blame is its association of making judgement based on a little information, which is why judgements of blame tend to be completely independent to reality
funnily enough, unlike previously stated, people tend to blame their environment even more frequently than they blame themselves. First, everyone but themselves. Second, yourself
Creating a mental block like this can become permanent and provide a long lasting feelings. For example, if you fail at a task enough times, one just believes that they will only fail = learned helplessness
taught helplessness =
The Seven Stages of Action
What to consider when dealing with a basic idea: the goal, what is done to the world, the world itself, and the check of the world. The action itself is broken down into two major aspects:
doing something (execution)
and
checking (evaluation)
Divided into three sections : goals, execution, and evaluation
Goals
: (1) forming the goal
Execution
: (2) forming the intention, (3) specifying an action, (4) executing the action
Difficulty with simple devices like projectors is entirely in the difficult of determining relationship between intended actions and mechanisms. Due to problems with mapping and feedback.
If positioning doesn't make sense for the action that is intended, user will find themselves making repetitive mistakes and blame themselves rather than the device
Evaluation
: (5) perceiving the state of the world, (6) interpreting the state of the world, (7) evaluating the outcome
Doesn't necessarily have to cover every single step but works in a continual feedback loop. Could last hours or days where goals can lead to subgoals and intentions lead to subintentions
This does not have to be preplanned and can be started at any point of the cycle
Gulf of Evaluation
: the degree to which the system/artifact provides representations that can be directly perceived and interpreted in terms of the expectations and intentions of the user.
Chapter 3 : Knowledge in the head and in the world
The Four Reasons that create precise behavior from imprecise knowledge// Behavior is a result of internal knowledge and external information and constraints
Behavior is a combination of what information is stored in memory (in the head) with information/practices in the world
Whenever information is needed to do a task that is readily available in the world, the need for one to learn diminishes
Because so much information is so readily available, you only need to know enough information in any situation where you can meet the quality of behavior you desire
People function through the combination of their
knowledge of
(declarative knowledge, facts and rules) and
knowledge how
(procedural knowledge; difficult or impossible to write down and difficult to teach. learned from demonstration and through practice. Largely in the subconscious)
Precision tends not to be required. Perfect behavior will result if the knowledge that describes the information or behavior is sufficient enough to choose the correct choice
Just need to know enough about something to complete an action. Sometimes more precise information can just make things hectic
Our brains tend to only tend to store partial information to provide the ability to distinguish one from the rest
Society has evolved artificial conventions that govern acceptable social behavior. Once learned, they are applied to a wide variety of circumstances
The world provides reminders of what the norms are through repetition of situation and allow you to create a set of directions in how to face certain situations
To keep from feeling as though all burdens are being but on you, place the reminders of the burdens on the world around you. (i.e. if you need take someone to the airport, have them remind you the night before)
Use signals and have them provide a message. The signal provides a reminder that there is a message. (i.e. write a message on a napkin (message)// knot the napkin (reminder))
Natural constraints can restrict allowed behavior creating a limited number of ways to follow operations to perform needed action
Structure of memory
Short-term memory : Memory of the present. Information is retained in it automatically and retrieved without effort. Amount of information retained this way is fairly limited. Invaluable in performance of everyday tasks. Works as temporary memory
Long-term memory : Memory of the past. Takes time and effort to memorize. Takes time and effort to retrieve. Lasts.
The way we categorize is divided into three parts
Arbitrary things with no meaning and no particular relationship to one another or to things already known
Simple things to remember what has to be done without reliance on an understanding of why
Sometimes people use rote learning to learn arbitrary things but that tends to cause more problems than it does solutions
When something goes wrong in their replication of the pattern used, people don't know what to do, unless they have memorized the pattern. Although it can be useful in cases of necessity or efficiency, as a whole, it is unsatisfactory
Meaningful relationships
can change an arbitrary task into a natural one
proper interpretation allows for behaviors to be derived when needed
USE MENTAL MODELS
Material that does not have to be remembered but rather derived from some explanatory mechanism
The most powerful form of understanding is if you can explain and understand the functions that you are forced to perform. This can be invaluable when dealing with situations that are unexpected
The more specific mental models become, the more instantaneous an action can be
Usability tends not be thought of as a criterion in the purchasing process which makes typical tasks more difficult when faced with mapping systems that aren't practical to remember
The tradeoff between Knowledge in the World (the reminder// easier to learn but more difficult to use// change the environement = change in info) and in the Head (efficient)
Retrievability
Knowledge in the World : Retrievable whenever visible or audible
Knowledge in the head : Not readily retrievable. requires memory search or reminding
Learning
World : Learning not required. Interpretation substitutes for learning. How easy it is to interpret information in the world depends upon how well it exploits natural mappings and constraints
Head : Requires learning, which can be considerable. Learning is made easier if there is meaning of structure to the material (or if there is a good mental model)
Efficiency to use
World : Tends to be slowed up by the need to find and interpret the external information
Head : Can be very efficient
Ease of use at first encounter
World : High
Head : Low
Aesthetics
World : Can be unaesthetic and inelegant, especially if there is a need to maintain a lot of information. This can lead to clutter. In the end, aesthetic appeal depends upon the skill of the designer
Head : Nothing need be visible, which gives more freedom to the designer, which in turn can lead to better aesthetics
Chapter Four : Knowing What To Do
Physical constraints provide the limitations by designers to ensure that the user can only put together/ build a specific way. The semantic constraints rely upon the meaning of the situation to control the set of possible actions. Cultural constraints rely upon cultural conventions. Although it may not affect the physical or semantic operations of a device, but it could affect how these operations are used. (i.e. read signs when you're driving) Logical constraints based off of natural mappings.
Make relevant parts visible and provide feedback that has immediate and obvious effect. You can have visibility for sound as well. Consider sounds for actions
The difficulty of dealing with novel situations is directly related the the number of possibilities. When there is more than one possibility. The designer have to be clever with hiding all the visible clues, so that the user may believe there are no alternatives
Chapter 5 : To Err Is Human
The two fundamental ways to err : slips and mistakes
Slips
result from automatic behavior, when subconscious actions are to intended to satisfy our goals go off track
Most everyday errors when you tend to do one action and find yourself doing another. Tend to show up in skilled behavior (i.e. mistakes in conversation when driving or walking)
6 different kinds of slips
capture errors : when a frequently done activity suddenly takes charge instead of the one intended (i.e. going to your room to change your clothes and going to bed)
description errors : the intended action has much in common with others that are possible. As a result, unless there is only exactly one route of intended action, there can be several possible directions of inappropriate actions
date-driven errors : automatic errors that intrude into an ongoing action sequence
associative activation errors : internal thoughts and associations that trigger actions (i.e. you pick up a phone and say hello)
loss of activation errors : simply forgetting to do something
mode errors : devices that have different modes of activation. Choosing the wrong mode.
Once you detect a slip, try to change the triggers that may have caused your slip, so that it doesn't repeat
Mistakes
result from conscious deliberations
An error in thought or the choice of inappropriate goals. Psychologists have chronicled this as the non rationality of real behavior. Tends to result in past experience over logical deduction. Human logic is not always relied on logic
Chapter 6 : The Design Challenge
Good design evolves and the first is never the final product. Designs are tested, problems are identified and then constantly retested and remodified until resources run out
It's important for the craftsperson is willing to be flexible allowing the eventual bad features to turn into good features
Demands of time tend to make it difficult for the design process to be fully explored limiting designers ability to eliminate all of the flaws. Another limitation in the process of design is individuality. A designer has to think about more than just creating a useful products, it has to be unique to them
Although aesthetics are pleasing, it is important that the usability is not compromised because then the product will become idle. Awards tend to go to the pretty things, while the things that are used have longer working lifetimes
Designers tend to be complacent once their product meets proficiency that they can no longer see the difficulties
One size does not fit all, so designers must make things flexible and account for many factors of differences
Chapter 7 : User-Centered Design
The 7 principles for transforming difficult tasks into simple ones
use both knowledge in the world and knowledge in the head
simplify structure of tasks
make things visible
get the mappings right
exploit the power of constraints, both natural and artificial
design for error
when all else fails, standardize
Mental models are divided into three structures : design model, user model, and system model
new technology can keep tasks the same but provide mental aids to make the process easier. It allows usually invisible things, visible improving feedback and the ability to keep control
Too much automation can be a danger too because it will make the user docile and limit their ability to act when something goes wrong in the system
Make sure the user can figure out what to do and the user can tell what is going on