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TASK 9: Is psychology Science? (CHAPTER 10: Is Psychology a Science?…
TASK 9: Is psychology Science?
Ch9 - what is Science?
Thougths before Scientific revolution?
Aristotle - Empiricist - Perception as a source of information but not knowledge itself. deductive vs inductive reasoning
Scepticism - Humans are not able to understand physical world - 360BC
Plato - Rationalist (Reasoning above perception)
Augustine - True knowledge is based on God's revelation - every knowledge is true - God's light shone upon the mind
Interaction between theory and experiment: the scientific revolution
Galilei: used experiments, but to ocnvince others he used thought experiments (rationalistic)
Bacon
• Systematic observation and inductive reasoning
• Collecting facts tables true scientific information about the world
Newton:
• Scientific method is based on deduction (known statement new conclusion)
• But the first principles have to be based on induction: observation, experimentation (Phenomena)
inductive reasoning - empiricim - from detail to generalization
SCIENTIFIC THEORY
Inductive reasoning and probable truths
• Inductive reasoning was disapproved up to the scientific revolution because it did not guarantee true conclusions
• Leibniz defended a similar probabilistic reasoning: scientific evidence could be reliable
o Probabilistic reasoning: determining how probable a theory was based on observations (Leibniz, Huygens, Bayes, Laplace
Herschel (1792-1871)
• Observation-independent scientific reasoning leads to truth if done carefully
• It’s possible to have different views of the same phenomenon
Theories influence observations
• Distinction between observations and ideas was not as clear as traditionally assumed
Whewell (1794-1866) Distinction between ideas/theory and observation/fact
Comte
• Real knowledge is based on observed facts, but observed facts are useless without guidance by some theory
• Only deductive reasoning was legitimate success of mathematics and geometry
• However, inductive reasoning was exactly what the new scientists were doing:
backwards reasoning from observed effects to probable causes
• As appreciation of inductive reasoning grew, hypotheses also were seen more positively
deductive reasoning - from general statement to detail
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE AND THE DEMARCATION OF SCIENCE
o Demarcation: defining boundaries of a concept (science)
o Philosophy of science: new branch of philosophy dealing with questions related to the status of science
Logical Positivism = philosophy should stop thinking about metaphysics, and instead try to understand the essence of the scientific approach. Its central tenet was the verification principle
The Vienna Circle (1920th)
• Beginning of logical positivism - Popper as a regular visitor
• Positivism: science as only true knowledge Locke
• Logical: emphasis on language and meaning
Physical reality could be known by analysing the logical structure of language (Wittgenstein)
The 1929 manifesto = outcome of the discussions
Truth divides into 2 types: empirical & logical truth
Empirical truths make claims about the world and are established through verification (observation + experiment)
Logical truths are based on deductive logic and are influenced by linguistic conventions
Statements not belonging to one of the categories are meaningless
verification principle/verificationism = proposition is meaningful only if it can be verified as true or false
Problems:
Non-observable variables
o Many scientific theories contain non-observable variables
Verification is logically impossible does not solve induction problem (ex: white & black swan)
Definition of observable
o Distinction between observable and non-observable is very arbitrary
Non-observable things may become observable later
Verifiable observations are no guarantee of correct understanding (ex: Galilei)
Result:
• Logical positivism failed
o Gave positivism the negative connotation of naïve belief in power and truth of science
Karl Popper (1902-1994)
• Alternative view on scientific research
perception is more than sensing stimuli
• Perception requires interpretation
• Perception of facts changes when seen within the overall framework
• A theory changes the perception of the facts
• Falsificationism = view of philosophy of science that statements are scientific only if they can be falsified empirically
• What distinguishes scientific theories from non-scientific is that they are falsifiable
o More important than verification
• The hypothetico-deductive method = model introduced by Popper to understand the scientific method
o Formulated on the basis of observation, induction and educated guesswork
o Correctness of the theory is evaluated by the formulation of a testable prediction - hypothesis
o Deductive reasoning
• Prediction is put to a falsification test
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o The more falsifiable, the higher the scientific status. he mor specific, the more falsifiable. The more facts it epxlains the more falsifiable
Sophisticated falsificationism
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Science is a succession of paradigms
Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996)
Agreed with Popper about the priority of theory over observation
Pre-science - normal science - crisis - revolution - new normal science - new crisis
• Revolution only 3 times in history
narcissist revolution
(Copernicus, Darwin, Freud)
o Lakatos tried to combine Popper & Kuhn
• Progressive research program: paradigm that allows to make new predictions that can be tested empirically
Scientific progress (Kuhn): no adhoc modification
Falsification (Popper): think about new ideas
• Degenerative research programme: paradigm that does not allow new predictions and requires many ad hoc modifications to account for findings
The science wars = debate between scientists and postmodernists
• Postmodernist =
someone in philosophy of science who questions the special status of science and sees scientific explanations as stories told by a particular group of scientists
• Many postmodernists (Feyerabend, Lyotard, Foucault, Latour) were sceptical to uncritical belief in science
Popper and Kuhn showed that scientific knowledge has nothing to do with realism, but is just a social construction
PIERCE
• Pragmatism = knowledge is information on how to cope with the world • Peirce (1839-1914) American philosopher
Peirce’s distinction between 4 ways of gathering knowledge
o Truth of knowledge depends on the success one has in engaging with the world
• Truth of a theory is only of interest if it makes a practical difference in outside world
4 ways of gathering knowledge
Scientific method
Method of tenacity (tradition) People hold assumptions and beliefs, because they have been around for a long tim
Method of authority - People form opinions by consulting “experts” (e.g. Religion, scientific advice)
Priori method - o People use their own reason and logic to reach conclusions
Two extreme views on the status of science
Objective: based on observable facts and on theories that have been verified and survived falsification
Subjective: perception of facts is biased by the scientists theoretical background (paradigm)
middle ground
Accept that perception has subjective and objective component
o Fact have objective basis: perceptions have an origin in physical reality
Accept that scientific claims must be treated with caution
o Especially new scientific findings can be wrong or not useful (pragmatism)
CHAPTER 10: Is Psychology a Science?
Reasons why Psychology is not seen as a science
typical psychologist
• Psychologist is associated with image of practicing therapist little overlap with typical researcher
• Psychologists are spontaneously not associated with science
Professional psychologists largely outnumber psychology researches
• Most psychologist practice psychology (therapy), but don’t do research don’t consider themselves as scientists
Psychology practitioners often forget their scientific education
• Forget all they have learned not better than untrained people
Ways in which psychology researchers have tried to distinguish themselves
• Use different names new psychology, experimental, scientific
• Create own societies for research and for practitioners
Everybody understands worthwhile psychological findings
• Psychology is accessible
• Everyone can relate to the new insights it gives us
• People are more interested in psychological findings than other sciences
• Public believes that psychologist have not much specialised knowledge
Hermeneutic alternative for psychology -
• Hermeneutics = task of psychologists is to interpret and understand persons on the basis of their personal and socio-cultural history
• Use methods of history, rather than scientific method
• More in line with public’s view of psychology as non-scientific
• Freud’s methods were in line with hermeneutic approach
Related schools by Freud inspired people
• Jung (1875-1961)
o Made a distinction between personal unconscious and collective unconscious
• Adler (1870-1937) o Most important motive for a human: feeling of inferiority- result of infants helplessness,resulting in strive for superiority
o Most important motive for a human: feeling of inferiority
• Bowlby (1907-1990)
o Attachment theory
• More in line with public’s view of psychology as non-scientific
Dilthey: Naturwissenschaften vs. Geisteswissenschaften (1880s – 90s)
Psychology should focus on what the mind comprises, not how it functions
Belongs to Geisteswissenschaften
Person cannot be studied isolated within socio-cultural and historical context
Natural-scientific method (experiments) will never grasp the totality of mental life appropriate method for psychology is understanding
Maslow and Roger - humnistic psychology
humanistic Psychology = reaction against psychoanalysis and behaviourism that stresses that people are human, inherently positive, endowed with free will and living within a socio-cultural context
• Stressed need for a new type of science (not so mechanistic)
Critical Psychology
- Criticises scientific psychology for failing to understand that knowledge does not refer to an outside reality (idealism) • That scientific knowledge is not cumulative but consists of social constructions and that psychological theories and claims have an impact on the world
E-reader: Science Communication in the Post-Expert Digital Age
digital age, all perspectives can get equal airtime post-expert world
• Biggest challenge is shift from ‘broadcast’ model, where network or magazine broadcasts information to a ‘conversation’ model – whereby someone generates info and others comment, share and add to it
• Another challenge is social media have created ‘filter bubble’ – reinforces tribal perspectives
People increasingly get their news from like-minded social networks
GEOGRAPHIC POLARIZATION
• People tend to live in communities with others who have similar racial and ethnic backgrounds
• Groups live in their own world online and offline
-reader: Trust in Science and The Science of Trust
• Trust is fundamental for the public understanding of science
•
Epistemic trust
rests on the assumption that one is dependent on the knowledge of others who are more knowledgeable and entails the risk of being misinformed
• Trust = kind of assumption about others
o Science no longer based in the authorities that promote it
o Understanding and doing science is a way of controlling the risk of not getting the truth
How much does the Public Trust Science?
• Surveys show that there is a general positive and optimistic view about science
From Trust to Epistemic Trust
• Aristotle defined three major character traits a person should possess to be persuasive
Practical intelligence
Virtuous character
Good will
• Seminal model: three dimensions that are believed to make you the trustworthiness of a trustee
Ability: the domain-specific skills and competencies that enable the trustee to have influence within the same domain
Benevolence: describes her acting independently from egocentric profit motive and in a beneficial interest for the trustor
Integrity: act according to a set of rules or principles acceptable to the trustor
• Epistemic Trust = trust in knowledge that has been produced or provided by scientists It entails
o Default trust: people are generally trustful to others as a predisposition for communication and cooperation, laying the groundwork for people to defer to the knowledge of others
o Vigilant trust: includes cognitive mechanisms that allow people to make rather fine-grained ascriptions of trustworthiness before accepting what others say