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History of Nuclear Energy (Nuclear Energy Goes Commercial (Soviet Union…
History of Nuclear Energy
Nature of the Atom
Ionizing Radiation (1895)
Wilherm Rontgen
Pitchblende Photographic Plate
(1896) Henri Becquerel)
Gamma Rays (1896)
Villard
Radioactivity (1896)
Pierre & Marie Curie
Creating new elements (1902)
Ernest Rutherford
Isotopes (1911)
Frederick Soddy
Discovery Neutron (1932)
James Chadwick
Creating new Elements (1932)
Cockcroft, Wlaton, Curie, Joliot
Greater Variety of Artificial Radionuclei with protons (1933) Enrico Fermi
Atomic Fission Proved (1938)
Hann and Strassman
Energy Release of Atomic Fission Calculated (1939)
Experimental Confirmation
E=mc2
Harnessing Nuclear Fission
Self Sustaining Chain Reaction (1939)
Classical Analysis of Fission Process (1939
Bohr & Wheeler
Fission/Atomic Bomb Concept (1939)
Perrin.
Neutron Absorbing Material Concept to limit multiplication of Neutrons - Nuclear Power Station (1939)
German Uranverein (1939-1942)
Nuclear Energy for military applications
Atomic Bomb by Britain and USA
Nuclear Physics in Russia
St Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1900)
Physicists Study Abroad (1920s-1930s)
KPIT and FTI Founded
Understanding of Nuclear Fission and Chain Reaction (1940)
German Invasion turns researchto military applications (1941)
Concieving the Atom Bomb
Frisch-Peierls Memorandum. 5 kg of pure U-235 = 1000's tons dynamite
MAUD Committee (UK)
Cambridge - Element 94 would be readily fissionable by slow and fast electrons. Naming of Element 94 to Plutonium
Cambridge - Chain Reaction can be sustained with slow neutrons in a mixture of uranium oxide and heavy water
Birmingham University + Imperial Chemistry recieve first contract to make 3kg of gaseous Uranium Haxaflouride
Developing Concepts
Confirmation of the fission cross section of U-235 (1941).
Slow neutrons are much more effective. Significant for Nuclear Reactors.
MAUD Commitee Reports
Use of Uranium for a Bomb. 12kg of active material = 1800 tons of TNT. Places near the explosion site dangerous for humans for long periods. Recomendation to work with United States.
PM Winston Churchill. Bomb Project to be pursued urgently.
Attack on Pearl Harbor (Dec. 1941) America enters the war and resources are applied without reservation to developing atomic bombs.
Use of Uranium as a Source of Power. Fission of Uranium could be used to provide energy in the form of heat for use in machines.
The Manhattan Project
Americans quickly outpace British scientists
British are given full access of American information (1942)
1942 US Army takes over all processes for pilot plants and for making fissionable material. Information to Britain stopped.
Agreement signed between USA and UK to share information.
US Program to develop atomic bomb cost 1,000 million dlls.
Fermi runs first controlled nuclear chain reaction.
(Dec. 1942 - University of Chicago).
Oppenheimer works on construction of U-235 and U-239 bombs.
Suficient U-235 and U-239 material produced from material Belgian Congo. (Mid 1945).
First Atomic Bomb tested successfully.
(July 1945 - Alamagordo New Mexico)
First Atomic Bomb Dropped on Hiroshima.
(August 6 1945).
Second Atomic Bomb Dropped on Nagasaki.
(August 9 1945). Russia declares war on Japan.
Japan surrenders.
(August 10 1945).
Pursuing multiple Enrichments Processes
Electromagnetic Separation
Proff Lawrence. Berkley
Centrifuge Method.
Murphree. Standard Oil.
Gaseous Diffusion.
Proff. Urey. Columbia.
Revival of the Nuclear Boiler
Attention given to the peaceful application of Nuclear Energy: Tremendous heat produced to be tapped directly or to produce Electricity.
United States
Atoms for Peace
(1953. Eisenhower).
Civil nuclear energy development in the USA
Pressure Water Reactor
(1953).
Admiral Rickover.
USA and USSR launched their first nuclear powered vessels. (1954)
US Atomic Commision builds Shippingport PWR Reactor
Soviet Union
Institute of Physics and Power Engineering.
(1946) to develop power technology.
FEI- Obnisk.
World's. first nuclear powered electricity generator.
(June 1954)
Fast Breed Reactors & Fast Neutron Reactors
(1950s). Modernized in 1973 and 1983.
United Kingdom
Calder Hall-1
(1956-2003).
Uranium Metal Reactors
Advanced Cooled Reactors.(1963).Enriched Oxide Fuel
UK conceeds to pragmatic virtues of PWR design
The Soviet Bomb
Stalin recieves intelligence reports of work done by Germany, Britain and USA
Research Program initiated.
(1942)
Controlled Chain Reaction
Graphite Pile
Heavy Water
Isotope Separation
Counter Current Thermal Diffusion
Gasous Diffusion
Electromagnetic Separation
Designs for Enriched Plutonium and Uranium Bombs
German scientists recruited after Nazi Germany surrenders
(1945)
Chelyabinsk-40. First of 10 Secret Cities is build in the Soviet Union.
(1945). First Plutonium production reactor.
Verkh-Neyvinsk.
First Gaseous Diffusion Plant.
(1945).
Worked shifted to Design Bureau-11 (later Arzamas-16).
Production of very pure graphite (Slavsky.
First Bomb denotonated. Based on intelligence from Nagasaki Bomb.
(august 1949).
Tamm & Sakhrov begin developing the H Bomb
Nuclear Energy Goes Commercial
France
Gas Graphite Design.
(1956-1959). Then 3 succesive generations of standarized PWRs
Soviet Union
VVER Pressurized water reactor
RMBK High Power Reactor.
(1973).
Beloryask Boiling Water Graphite Channel. (1964).
First Commercial Fast Neutron Reactor (1972).
USA
PWR (1960). Westinghouse
BWR. (1957-1963).Argone & GE.
Canada
Natural Uranium & Heavy Water. (1962).
Rest of the World.
Light Water Designs.
World Capacity is 60% PWR
21% BWR
Nuclear Power Brownout and Revival
The West
1990s
3rd Generation Reactors commisioned for Japan
2000's to Present
Revived Prospects for Nuclear Power
Realization of the scale of projected increased electricity demand worldwide
Awareness of Energy Security
Need to limit carbon emmisions due to concerns on climate change
1970s-1980s
Decline and Stagnation
Share of Nuclear World Power was 16-17%
Oil Companies bailed out of the industry
Asia
China & India
Huge increase in nuclear ppower capacity by 2030s backed by credible political determination and popular support.