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Biology Paper 1 Revision (CHAPTER 7 (A non-communicable disease cannot be…

- - - - The stomach: involved in digestion of food, contains:
        Muscular tissue: churn food
        Glandular tissue: produce digestive juices and enzymes
        Epithelial tissue: covers the inside and outside of the organ
  - - - The muscular walls of the small intestine squeeze undigested food to the large intestine, where water is absorbed into the blood, leaving faeces which passes out of the body through the rectum/anus.
  - - - Carbohydrate-rich foods include bread, potatoes, rice and pasta. Most are broken down into glucose used in respiration to provide energy for metabolic reactions. Cellulose is important for support in plants.
    - - Proteins are used to build cells and tissues of the body, and are the basis of all enzymes. Made up of: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen. A protein molecule is a long chain of amino acids. There are around 20 types of amino acid, and different arrangements → different proteins. The chains are folded, twisted and coiled to make 3D shapes, that allow other molecules to fit into them. The bonds holding the proteins in the shapes are sensitive to temperature and pH, which means they're easily denatured.
        
        They have different functions:
        ~ structural components of tissues e.g. muscles, tendons
        ~ hormones e.g. insulin
        ~ antibodies
        ~ enzymes
- - - - haemoglobin makes it red
      - carries oxygen around the body
      - have no nucleus and is biconcave so can carry more oxygen
    - - defend body against disease
        
        some cells engulf microbes and destroy them
        
        some make antibodies which microbes stick together and are therefore easier to engulf
        
        some produce antitoxins which counteract the bacteria's toxins
      - can change shape to engulf
    - - the fluid in which all blood cells are transported in
      - also transports water, hormones, antibodies, food nutrients and waste products
      - its yellow
    - - fragments of cells
      - allow blood to clot at wound
      - no nucleus
      - clotting is an enzyme controlled reaction that produces fibers that capture red blood cells so u do not bleed to death
  - - - carry blood away from the heart
      - stretch as blood go thru them and then go back in place. felt as a pulse
      - thick walls contain muscle + elastic fibres
      - thick wall, small lumen
    - - carry blood to the heart
      - no pulse
      - valves prevent back-flow of blood
      - skeletal muscles squeeze blood to ♥
      - relatively thin walls, large lumen
    - - tiny vessel with narrow lumen
      - diffusion occurs easily
      - wall on cell thick so diffusion occurs easily thru them
  - - - ribs move up and out, diaphragm flattens, volume of chest increases
      - increased volume = lower pressure in chest
      - atmosphere air at higher pressure than chest so air enters lungs
    - - ribs fall, diaphragm moves up, volume decreases
      - decreased volume = higher pressure in chest
      - as pressure in chest higher than outside so air leaves lungs
- - - - 1 km = 1000 m
      - 1 m = 100 cm
      - 1 cm = 10 mm
      - 1 mm = 1000 micrometers
      - 1 micrometer = 1000 nanometers
    - - Magnification = Size of image x size of real object
    - - Resolution- is the ability to distinguish between two separate points.
      - Magnification- the amount of zooming power a microscope has.
  - - - The nucleus- controls all the activities of the cell and is surrounded by the nuclear membrane. It contains the genes and chromosomes for reproduction
      - Cytoplasm- a liquid gel in which the organelles are suspended and where most of the chemical reactions take place
      - The cell membrane- controls the passage of substances such as glucose and minerals ions into the cell.
      - Mitochondria- structures in the cytoplasm where aerobic respiration takes place, releasing energy for the cell
      - Ribosomes- where protein synthesis take place, making all the protein the cell needs.
    - - Plant cells usually contain the same structures as an animal cell but with extra plant structures.
      - Cell Wall- a barrier structure made of cellulose that strengthens the cell and gives it support
      - Chloroplasts- are found in all green parts of the plant. they are green because they contain the green substance chlorophyll. Chlorophyll absorbs light so the plant make make food via photosynthesis.
      - Permanent Vacuole- a space in the cytoplasm filled with cell sap. this is important for keeping the cells rigid to support the plant.
- - - - how plants use the glucose they make
      - the extra materials that plant cells need to produce proteins
      - some practical tests for starch, sugars, and proteins.
      - Starch is a long molecule made of many repeating untis of glucose. Why do plants store glucose in their cells as starch?
        
        Test leaves that have been kept in the light and the dark for starch. Before you start, read the method and write down any potential hazards and how to minimise risk.
        
        Plant and algal cells use the glucose produced during photosynthesis for respiration, to convert into insoluble starch for storage, to produce fats or oils for storage, to produce cellulose to strengthen cell walls, and to produce amino acids for protein synthesis.
        Plants and algal cells also need nitrate ions absorbed from the soil or water to make the amino acids used to make proteins.
- - - - diet
      - stress
      - disease
        
        non-communicable
        
        communicable
        
        disease can interact and make other problems worse
        
        Physical and mental health such as bad physical health leading to depression
        
        viruses in living cellas can trigger changes that lead to cancer
      - life situations
  - - - an uncontaminated culture of bacteria can be grown using a sterilised
        
        you sterilise the inoculating loop before use and fix the lid of the petri dish to prevent micro-organisms getting in
        
        only incubated at 25 degrees celcius, to prevent the likelihood f harmful pathogens growing in schools or colleges
        
        epedemic
      - uncontaminates cultures of micro organism are needed for investigation
        
        antibiotics
        
        disinfectants
    - - water
        
        plants
        
        fungal spores carried in splashes of water
        
        humans
        
        drinking sewage water
        
        eating raw, undercooked or contaminate food
        
        enter through digestive system
      - direct contact
        
        plants
        
        tiny piece of plant infected material left in a field
        
        infects a whole new crop
        
        humans
        
        STD's
        
        contact of skin
        
        syphilis
        
        chlamydia
        
        sexual contact
        
        HIV/AIDS
        
        cuts, scratches and needle contact
        
        hepatitis
      - air
        
        humans
        
        droplet infection
        
        breathing in droplets from an ill persons cough or sneeze
        
        plants
        
        fungal spores
    - - bacteria #
        
        produce toxins to make you feel ill
      - fungi
      - viruses
        
        reproduce rapidly inside the body
      - protists
    - - bacteria multiply by simple cell dicision as often as every 20 mins if the have
        
        the right nutrients
        
        the right temperature
        
        usually 37degress celsius in humans
      - you can investigate the effects of disinfectants and antibiotics
- - - - When you exercise oxygen and glucose is used up by your muscles. Carbon dioxide and water are the products of the aerobic respiration that is carried out in your body during exercise. Your heart and breathing rate increase to keep up with the demands of the cells.
    - - Anaerobic respiration uses glucose to form lactic acid and release energy
        
        Muscles become fatigued during long periods of vigorous activity. This means that they stop contracting efficiently. One cause of this is the build-up of lactic acid in the muscles from anaerobic respiration. The lactic acid is removed from the muscles by blood flowing through them. This pays off the oxygen debt.
    - - Aerobic respiration uses oxygen and glucose to release energy
    - - Metabolism is the sum of all the reactions that take place within a cell or body
        
        Metabolic reactions include: conversion of glucose to starch, glycogen and cellulose, the reactions of respiration, and the reactions of photosynthesis as well as many others.