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11) Language Production: Highly variable & improvised

- - - - Involve planning the meaning to be communicated
      - Proceeds on a phrase-by-phrase or clause-by-clause basis
      - Involve words, phrases, sentences, ideas
    - - Speakers less time to plan
      - Writers direct access to what they have written so far
      - Speakers get moment-to-moment feedback from listeners
      - Different effects on memory
      - Speakers more often know their audience
  - - - Involve linguistic & vocal planning prior to vocalisation
      - Draw on brain resources associated with language capacity
      - Involve vocalisation of words & phrases
      - Precedes on a phrase-by-phrase or clause-by-clause basis
    - - Speakers: Intuitive pitch/timing (speech intonation) Singers: Formalised changes in pitch and rhythm
      - Speaking: Communication focus/social bonding Singing: Aesthetic experience
      - Speakers: Improvisation Singers: Sing memorised sequences of pitches and words
      - Speaking: turn taking Singing: All sing at once
- - - - Encourages interaction with perceiver
        Head nods, eye contact, palms towards listener
    - - Unintentional, reflects emotional states
        Facial expressions, clenched fist
    - - Supports or reinforces
        Pointing, accentuating certain words
    - - Unintentional, self conscious, coping
        Hair twirling, scratching nose, biting lip
    - - Can be translated into speech/words
        Peace sign, thumbs up
  - - - Vocal quality/timbre
    - - Amount of pitch variability
    - - Intensity: loud or soft
    - - Articulation (precise/relaxed)
    - - Overall pitch height
    - - Contour (of pitch, intensity)
  - - - Cooperative Principle: Speakers and listeners must try to be cooperative
      - Strategies for effective communication
        
        Discourse markers: Extra words to help clarify
        
        Prosodic cues: Intonation used to aid meaning
        
        Gestures: Aid understanding and clarification
        
        Syntactic priming: Repetition of syntactic structure that has been heard recently
        
        Audience design: Speakers account for needs of listeners
      - Maxims
        
        Manner: Make contribution easy to understand
        
        Relation: Relevant to situation
        
        Quality: Accurate
        
        Quantity: Informative, but not more so
- - - - No subject-verb (best friend, for twenty days)
      - Pauses are longer before complex > simple phrases
      - Word exchange errors can occur across different phrases
    - - Pauses can occur before either clauses & phrases
      - Amount of planning depends on speed/fluency demands
    - - Pauses occur before
      - Errors can occur anywhere in a clause
      - Subject-verb (I walked home, she ran to school)
  - - - Meaning of words
    - - Order of the words
    - - Smallest semantically meaningful bits of speech
        "pre", "cat", "ed", "s", "un" "ing"
    - - Sounds that make up the speech
        Mat = "M" + "a+ + "t"
- - - - Intact speech comprehension
      - Associated with left frontal lobe damage (Broca's area)
      - Slow, non-fluent speech, poor syntax ability (production)
      - Melodic intonation therapy (MIT)
        
        Singing to stimulate right hemisphere & facilitate speech recovery: compensate for left side
        
        Tapping along with the left hand
    - - Jargon aphasia
        
        Severe problems with comprehension
        
        Deficit in phonological encoding, after lexical access
        
        Cannot find word they want to say: may produce neologisms
        
        Inadequate speech monitoring
        
        Phonemes found in neologisms determined by
        
        Phonemic frequency
        
        Phonemic recency
        
        Phonemes present in target word
      - Speech lacks meaning
      - Fluent & grammatical speech, can get emotion, lacking in detail and specificity
      - Problems with speech comprehension
      - Damage to left posterior temporal lobe (Wernicke's area)
    - - Impaired ability to name objects (failure in word retrieval)
      - According to WEAVER++ occurs at lemma selection stage: (have conceptual grasp; have phenological ability to speak it)
      - What is impaired: the mapping between semantic information about the object and phonological representations
        
        Disconnection
- - - - Directly models how word production moves through lexical selection to morphological encoding to phonological encoding
      - Shifts focus away from errors and towards timing of word production
    - - Narrow focus on single word production
      - Fails to explain errors that suggest parallel processing
      - Necessity of the lemma? (lexical access)
      - Some findings with anomia are inconsistent with model
  - - - Stimulates many speech errors (overgeneralisation)
      - Spreading activation: can explain lots of cognitive processes
      - Plausible architecture: brain neurons
    - - Vague on processes related to semantics
      - Not well designed to predict: time taken to produce spoken words (planning)
- - - - Lexical selection error: No affluence (influence) over him
        Had to evaporate (evacuate) the city
      - Sound-exchange: belly jeans (jelly beans) (often spoonerisms: sound exchange with meaning)
      - Semantic substitution: Tennis bat (tennis racket)
      - Word exchange errors: "Your problem (You're welcome, no problem)
      - Number-agreement error: A study of 300 animals indicate (indicates)- long distance relationship within a phrase
      - Morpheme-exchange errors: Awful (awesome + beautiful)
    - - Score on comprehension, score on own speech errors, score on monitoring own speech errors: no relationship between ability to detect errors or comprehension
      - More production errors = less liekly to detect own errors