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Application of Psychology (Anti-Psychiatry (A-P in Psychiatrists (A-P…
Application of Psychology
History
William James
-
Functionalism
What is the mind's
function/purpose
not just its biological structures (=Titchener's structuralism)
Inspired by
Darwin's Theory of Evolution
Psychology should be about how people adjust to the stress of daily life & applying knowledge & making it useful
Essentialism:
Analysis of behaviour/performance in a setting/task into
essential underlying mental capacities
Pragmatism:
Analysis of
mental processes
involved in the given setting/task itself
Wundt
First psychological lab --> took psychology from a mixture of philosophy & biology = unique field
Used
scientific method
to study mind & behaviour
Munsterberg
Wanted to apply psychology --> US society characterised by lack of respect for authority
Offered German culture & the new science of psychology (in the place of monarchy)
Father of Forensic Psychology:
Argued against reliance on
eyewitness testimony
- staged demonstrations of assaults during class --> Inconsistencies in reports show people's
unreliability
Argued against the
blind confidence
in the observations of the average man
Legal procedures:
People in the legal system were stubborn about accepting knowledge from psychologists
Mental Illness:
Saw patients & wrote a book to dispel myths about mental illness & challenge psychoanalysis (Freud)
Titchener thought Munsterberg's abdication of psychology was
too early
--> may have been a
political basis
for the dispute (he was German) = tension between nations & between applied & pure science
Vigilance Research
Study
=The capacity to sustain attention
Loss in the ability to detect rare signals over time
Women detecting faulty gun cartridges during WW2 = vigilance
V in radar operators
Mackworth
- Clock test - Detecting enemy submarines --> difficult to discriminate target (very few targets)
Long periods of
isolated work in dark rooms
--> efficiency dropped 80% over 40 minutes
Many false alarms --> chances of being a submarine = 1/30
Monitor for rare
double jump (1/200)
Different Measures
Early studies focused on detection rate &/or reaction time
Not dissociating different measures - important evidence lost?
Signal Detection Theory (SDT)
Z Scores Derived:
d' (d prime) --> reflecting a person's sensitivity to a signal
B (beta) --> reflecting the level of evidence at which the observer is willing to report a signal (reflecting person's confidence/conservatism)
The Cambridge Cockpit: Key Findings
Simulated performance of skilled pilots for >24 hours -->
psychological fatigue
--> deterioration in standards & frustration
Control deteriorated
50% over 2 hrs as well as the timing & sequencing of actions & aspirations
They thought they were performing better or same - but they were getting
worse
Legacy of Early Human Factors
Theoretical & conceptual:
Practical utility of SDT
Insight into nature of sustained, selective & divided attention, working memory
Pre-empted
cogitive psychology
Impact in the 'real world':
Air traffic control
Aviations
Transport
Medicine
Rise of Clinical Psychology
Impact of WW1
25% of members of APA served in war & 12 committees of APA dedicated to war effort
Sudden need for more
clinical psychologists
--> new fighting technique = immense mental strain = shellshocked
USA joined WW2 --> offers intensive course in treatment of mental disorders to all doctors & clinical psychologists recruited
Beginning of client-centred psychotherapy --> rising demand for psychological help due to WW2 catalysed new therapies
Psychoanalysis - required many sessions & effectiveness unclear
More immediate benefits of client-centred therapy without the long drawn out procedures of psychoanalysis
Carl Rogers:
Publishes
counselling & psychotherapy
The struggle between medical doctors (psychiatrists) & psychologists regarding right to practice psychotherapy
A good therapist needed only:
Unconditional positive regard:
non-judgemental
Empathetic understanding:
More holistic/flexible
Congruence - genuine understanding:
Better than mechanical & cold theoretical model application
Post WW2
3 key developments after WW2 that facilitated the rise of clinical psychology
Anti-psychiatry
Input from scientific research in PT
Development of psychoactive drugs
Anti-Psychiatry
60s-70s -->
Cultural movement
against the establishment (Hippies)
Psychiatry
criticised
--> thief of individual expression; to be demeaning & dangerous
Previously, psychiatry adopting invasive physical treatment --> lobotomies & ECT
Reasons for A-P
Lobotomy:
Severing nerve fibres connecting the frontal & PFC cortex to rest of brain
Ice-pick
= quicker & under local anaesthetic - no need for hospitalisation
1/3 worsened, 1/3 improved --> symptoms got better but their functioning & personality was lost
ECT:
100 volts, 3 times a week for 2-7 weeks
A-P in Psychiatrists
A-P movements -
pressure group called psychiatrists into questions - seen as a political tool
Rebellion within the establishment - 1960
Szasz:
Illness not within the patient but in
US society
Rosenhan:
Confederates claiming to hear voices & when they were admitted said voices stopped - took a long time to be let out
Seen as
clients NOT patients
Keep them in the community & re-humanise
Hospitalisation to be as short as possible
At the centre of the healing process
Input from Science
Empirical
evaluation of therapies - PT vs. those on waiting list (control) --> 2/3 had improved in BOTH groups 2 yrs later
More efficacy research, results in 60s & 70s more favourable
Psychoactive drugs
50s-60s --> psychiatrists lowered their resistance to non-psychiatrists (clinical psychologists) as only they could prescribe drugs
In developed countries - PA's = 15% of drugs prescribed
Social Management & Individualisation
Patients often taken away - replacing families
Reliance on mental health services grew - people wanted professional help & growing individualism
Increased knowledge of clinical psychology in the population:
Integrated in to mainstream professional training
Manifested into everyday language: extrovert, neurotic, depressed etc. --> more likely to seek services as language is used everyday