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TASK 1 (LINDBERG et al (Invention of literature) (The Arab Empire…

- - - - because it is difficult to discern more than four lines in a glance, the tallies were grouped, the grouping usually occurred in fives (i.e. base 5 system)
      - gradually a separate symbol was used for five and multiples of five
  - - - geometrical knowledge, calendar, hieroglyphs
    - - math (algerba, astronomy, calendar)
    - - patronage
      - availability of a writing system
      - urbanization
  - - - one of 1st questions - whether foundations of life were constant or ever-changing
    - - • Heraclitus (535-475 BCE) argued that everything was constantly changing and that even if you did the same thing twice, it was different because the conditions were no longer exactly the same
        
        Others argued that at the end of the explanatory road of the perceivable changing phenomena, there had to be something fixed and unchangeable
      - Plato (427-348 BCE) (founder of the academy in Athens - recorded dialogues of Socrates
        
        The realm of the ideal forms
        
        • we perceive nothing but the shadows of the objects
        
        • made a distinction between the realm of eternal, never-changing ideal forms and the realm of the ever-changing material reality in which these forms or ideas are imperfectly realized (an analogy used here is that we are in cave and only see the shadows of the real forms)
        
        The three parts of the soul
        
        • first part comprised reason, the second part dealt with sensation and emotions such as anger fear pride and courage
        
        Method of knowledge: rationalism (truth is based in thinking not on info from the sense; humans have innate knowledge that can be recovered through deductive reasoning
      - Aristotle (384-322 BC) - student of Plato, foinder of lyceum in Athens, father of logical reasoning
        
        introduced the force called psyche (what discriminated living from non-living things)
        
        • Metaphysics (model of the cosmos consisting of the earth surrounded by different spheres and made of five elements, aether, air; earth, fire water; animistic elements)
        
        Three types of knowledge -
        
        Practical knowledge (how men ought to act in various circumstances)
        
        Theoretical knowledge (mathematics, natural science and theology
        
        Theoretical knowledge consisted of a series of axioms (self-evident truths about nature which were acquired through observation and intuition) from which the remaining knowledge was derived by means of logic.
        
        Productive knowledge (making things, such as farming, engineering, art,..)
    - - 1. Academy founded by Plato (388 BCE)
      - 2. Lyceum (in Athens) established by Aristotle (335 BCE)
        
        Aristotle had been a member of Plato’s school for 20 years, but after Palto’s death: own school established because Aristotle opinions started to deviate too much form Platonian view
      - Stoa (312 BCE): Stoich approach based on self-control, fortitude and detachment from distracting emotions
      - Garden of Epicurus (307 BCE): Epicurean approach based on virtuous and temperate life with the enjoyment of simple pleasures obtained by knowledge and friendship
  - - - Romans were much more interested in technological (practical questions) advances than in philosophy. (Greeks: philosophical debates)
    - - • whereas Rome was situated in the Wets Empire, the east civilizations or the Byzantine Empire, to which Greece belonged, was much stronger and more science- friendly
      - • Capital was Constantinople (Istanbul), lasted till 1453 when Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks
      - • the main contribution of Byzantium to history of science seems to have been the preservation of the legacy of the Ancient Greeks
      - more interested in religion (christianity - science associated with paganism
  - - - • Catholic Church main preserver of greek science; not very science-oriented
      - → When Christianity became the dominant religion in the 3rd century: much more interest in Plato's writings than in those of the other philosophers, because Plato's view of a higher, ideal world of which we only see the shadows, coincided with the church's view
      - → Plato's works were among the most widely available
      - Dark Ages = name given in the Renaissance to the Middle Ages, to refer to the lack of independent and scientific thinking in that age
- - - - • Culture acts as a perceptual filter for what is important
  - - - Ignition
      - Choice of fuel
      - Extend its range of uses
  - - - • Fifth millennium BC
  - - - Thales->founder
        
        predicted solar eclipse
      - o Pythagoras  earth is a sphere
      - o Democritus  founder of atomic theory
      - o Aristotle  reason-freak  God is the reason for everything
         Geocentric Model (Model of the Heavens)
      - o Eudoxus  the heavenly bodies belonged to a system of homocentric spheres, whose centre was the earth
      - o Empedocles  4 elements (fire, air, water, earth) as the constituents of all matter
    - - o Ptolemy  Replaced Aristotle’s system
         The orbits of the moon and all five planets were each conceived of in terms of two circles, the deferent and the epicycle
- - - - • The larger the group, the more time individuals devote to grooming with the members of their coalitional clique
    - - • Group Size in Modern Humans
        
        o Group sizes fall into 3 size classes:
        
        Small living groups of 30- 50 individuals (commonly measured as overnight camps but often referred to as bands in some of the hunter-gatherer literature)
        
        Large population unit (the tribe or subtribe) between 500 and 2,500
        
        Intermediate level (either a more permanent village or a culturally defined clan or lineage group) contains 100-200 people  don’t always have an obvious physical manifestation  instead, ritual functions
      - o Informal rule in business organization: 150 as the critical limit for the effective coordination of tasks and information flow through direct person-to-person links
      - o Grooming = bonding mechanism  dyadic and time consuming  language overcomes these limitations (cheap form of social grooming
        
        o Social intelligence hypothesis  language for acquisition of social knowledge
      - • Predicted group size for humans = large
      - • Kinship  relevant to individuals' decisions about whom to group with  often provides a convenient means of structuring a hierarchy
        
        o Also, common interest, and biological, economic, and social dimensions
- - - - Protestant Reformation = movement against the Roman Catholic Church, which was important for the development of science, because it emphasized the need for education, critical thinking, hard work and worldly success. (starting in 1516
        
        • Large parts of Europe no longer being under the control of the Roman Catholic Church
        more importance to education, critical thinking, hard work and worldly success
        
        • according to sociologist Max Weber, this is one of the reasons why the Protestant countries started to outperform the Catholic countries scientifically and economically
    - - Knowledge came much more within reach
      - Constant danger of loss or destruction ( because books were so rare)
      - No errors in the books
      - Work on same copy of a book -> much easier to correspond and collaborate
    - - • need for technological an scientific innovations (earth round not flat)
      - • Aristotle was proven wrong (said that no one could live in the middle zone because it was boiling hot) when the Portuguese started to occupy parts of Africa
- - - - • Discoveries don’t depend upon the one guy who discovered it: it has been shown that discoveries have been prepared over a long time (often independently at several places) and that the time simply was right for them
        
        ZEITGEIST
        
        time was right for a certain discovery; the discovery did not originate from a single genius, but form a much wider development leading to the discovery
    - - • We have a tendency to assume that they knew more than they actually did. On the basis of what we know, we assume that the same knowledge was shared by the person who first described the phenomenon
    - - • authors have a tendency to attach excessive weight to the contribution of their own group and the group of their readers