Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

lifs 1930 (animals form (shape (land animals by gravity marine features…

- - - - contractile proteins arranged in parallel
      - type
        
        smooth
        
        single nucleus
        
        involuntary muscle
        
        no striations
        
        important functional role in the movement of substances, so in digestive area
        
        cardiac muscle
        
        striations but involuntary
        
        single central nucleui
        
        actually separated, individual cells;
        
        skeletal muscle
        
        voluntary muscle
        
        one fiber with multiple nuclei
        
        light and dark bands
        
        striations
    - - type(Neuroglia are cells that support and nourish neurons)
        
        Astrocytes
        
        provide nutrients
        
        Oligodendrocytes
        (myelin sheaths)
        
        increase the speed of transmiting impulse
        
        Microglia
        
        engulf bacterial
      - transmit nerve impulses
        
        neuron: dendrites and axons(transmit impulse to other effector)
        
        concentrated in the brain.
    - - providing support and shock absorption,
        
        all except blood having fibers, cell and ground substance;
        
        blood lacks the fiber component.
      - type(both have fibroblast)
        
        Loose fibrous tissue
        
        protective layer to protect internal organs
        
        dense fibrous tissue
        
        large amount of collagen fibers ->withstand stress;
        connect bones to bones/ muscles in tendon
      - Cartilage
        
        Chondrocytes (mature cartilage cells): make the matrix and fibers, lacks a direct blood supply
      - bone
        
        rigid connective tissue
        
        calcium salts deposit around collagen fibers, strength and flexibility
      - Adipose
        
        no fibroblast
        
        enlarge and store fat for energy metabolism, insulation and organ protection.
      - blood (have matrix)
        
        red blood cell no nucleui
        white have nucluei
    - - outer surfaces of the body and the lumen of internal organs
        
        one side to envir, one side to basement membrane
        
        round, flat, and have a small, centrally-located nucleus
        
        diffusion / exchange
        
        lungs/ wall of blood vessels
      - type
        
        Stratified squamous epithelial cell
        
        line in constant abrasion areas, so top sloughed off, replaced by bottom layer
        
        Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelia
        
        irregular nucluei, cilia, Goblet cells inside to secret mucous
        
        Simple columnar epithelial
        
        like column, in digestive tract
        
        Cuboidal Epithelia
        
        in glands, tubules, kidney and liver
        
        cube-shape
  - - - gain heat from external sources
        
        unable to maintain their body temperature
    - - generate heat by metabolism
        
        maintain a relatively constant body temperature
        
        e.g mammals
      - human: hypothalamus,functions as a thermostat
        for heat saving:
        vasoconstriction of superficial vessels and erection of fur, shivering.
        for cooling: vasodilation, sweating, or panting.
- - - - descent with modification
      - random change are selected by non random way, orderly
    - - finches have diff beak when diff diet,
        beak’s width(BMP4 gene) and length (Calmodulin gene).
      - fossil : become sedimentary rock.
        
        Transitional Fossils: prove species are not fixed
      - Anatomical evidence
        
        if similar structure and from common ancestor
        -> homologous structures.
      - DNA
        
        mutate/ inherit
        
        similar DNA -> organism closely related
    - - the way a species makes its living, biological & physical conditions required for the species to reproduce and survive.
    - - Microevolution-small scale evolution
        
        change in population
        
        dominant vs. recessive alleles
        
        phenotype, genotype, alleles
        
        Hardy-Weinburg equilibrium: p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
        
        mutation: change DNA
        
        Nonrandom mating-Sexual selection
        
        inbreeding-mating
        
        easy to cause recessive genetic diseases
        
        Genetic drift
        
        Bottleneck effect
        Founder effect
        
        more likely to occur in a small population in a small population
        
        random change
      - Macroevolution-big scale evolution
        
        allopatric
        
        separated geographically
        
        sympatric
        
        same place having different chromosomes
        -> fertilisation cannot occur.
        
        no physical separation
        
        Peripatric
        
        near to, disaster -> causing genetic drift
        
        Parapatric
        
        no geographical separation
        
        reproductive isolation mechanisms
        
        Prezgyotic
        
        Habitat isolation (species occupy different habitats)
        
        Temporal isolation (species reproduce in different seasons)
        
        Behavioural isolation (e.g. birds have different songs, so do not respond)
        
        Mechanical isolation (Genitalia are unsuitable for each other)
        
        Postzygotic
        
        Zygote mortality
        
        Hybrid sterility (between two species, e.g. donkey and horse to create a sterile mule)
        
        Hybrid dies prematurely
- - - - community
        
        ecosystem(community+physical envr)
        
        biomes (climate +community)
        
        biosphere
        
        aquatic, forests, grasslands, deserts, tundra.
        
        marine(O2 supply, CO2 absorb),
        Coral Reefs: warm shallow water
        
        forest:
        
        temperate (T vary)
        
        tropical(warm, humid)
        
        Taiga( northern hemisphere, Low T)
        
        grassland
        
        no tree
        
        temperate
        
        1 more item...
        
        Tundra(coldest,dry)
        
        Arctic, Alpine
  - - - division of feeding niches
    - - two species living in the same area -> change their morphology
        -> to lessen competition for resources
    - - Commensalism(+/0)
      - Mutualism(+/+)
      - Parasitism/ predation(+/-)
      - prey vs predator(use least to get max food)
        
        cyclic relationship
      - e.g some species protect themselves
        
        Aposematic coloration
        
        Mimicry
        
        Batesian mimicry
        
        prey（no harm) resemble others(harm) to defend predator
        
        Müllerian mimicry
        
        prey resemble others(both have 傷害力） to defend predator
  - - - loss energy by heat, some food pass out by feces
    - - C, H, N,O, P, S
        
        ocean acidification (OA) ->algae leave -> coral(no nurtient) -> bleaching
        
        Ozone (O3) protects the Earth from UV.
        
        Greenhouse gases include CO2, methane and nitric oxide and H2O(but it dun cause greenhouse effect).
      - Plants cannot use N2 gas in the atmosphere (78%)
        need to be ammonium ions for using
        
        Denitrification-converting nitrate back to N2 gas.
        
        human impact N cycle
        
        fertilizer causes soil microbes to release large amounts of N2O
      - P from rock, phosphate ions from the soils.
        P change to ATP /phospholipid
- - - - Anabolic reactions
        
        use energy to synthesize larger molecules
      - Catabolic reactions
        
        arger molecules are broken down, energy is released and stored as ATP
  - - - endergonic reaction: +G
      - exergonic reaction:- G
  - - - generate from ADP, break glucose during respiration process, ATP => ADP+P, release energy
    - - e.g respriation
        
        Mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC)
  - - - complex carbohydrates
      - dietary fiber
      - simple carbohydrates
      - human cannot obtain energy from fiber
        
        not all types of carbs can be utilized to release energy
      - Complex Carbohydrates: GOOD carbs,
        longer to break down
      - Metabolism of carbohydrates
    - - Saturated fats( like butter), LDL
      - unsaturated fats (like vegetable oils)
      - trans fat: bad for heart
      - Cholesterol: important for metabolic process
      - pack fat into lipoproteins and then mixed with blood and flow with it. -> HDL/ LDL/triglycerides
    - - contain calories
      - break food into amino-acid (resemble to proteins)
    - - vitamin: organic, can break down
        mineral: inorganic, stable chemical structure
- - - - neuronal signaling, delivered over axons of neuron, electrical impulse, neurontransmitter
    - - local mediators by diffusing locally via the extracellular medium.
    - - communicate by making direct contacts,
        short-range communication
    - - produce hormones and transmit them over the body via bloodstream
  - - - directly diffuse across the plasma membrane
      - e.g steroid hormones(estrogen, testosterone,cholesterol)
    - - most bind to cell surface and then trigger cell change
      - e.g peptide hormones, charged molecules
    - - most are hydrophilic
        
        ion-channel, G-protein, and enzyme-linked protein receptors.
        
        G-protein: single polypeptide chain, called 7-transmembrane receptor
      - hydrophobic
        
        Intracellular receptors
        
        in cytosol or nucleus of target cells, when hydrophobic messengers pass plasma membrane, activated receptors and generate genes
- - - - Conservation Biology <- University of California in 1978.
        
        preserve biodiversity, communities and ecosystems
        
        2016 may extinct
        
        Black rhino,Javan rhino, Hawksbill turtle, South China tiger,Yangtze finless porpoise,Sumatran elephants
        
        biodiversity hotspots
        (Conservation International identify)
        
        where biodiversity is more concentrated
        
        at least 1,500 species of endemics plants(unique, only found in certain places)
        
        lost at least 70 percent of habitat.
        
        most concerned: keystone species
        
        plays a crucial role in the ecosystem,
        without them, destroy ecosystem
        
        e.g, sea star(predator of mussel), no sea star, too many mussel, affect marine system
        
        flagship species
        
        dun affect ecosystem, only promote conservation activities,
        e.g panda
      - IUCN
        
        extinct <- endangered <- threatened
        Endangered: near to extinction,
        threatened: likely to be endangered
        
        y?
        
        overharvasting (past)
        habitat loss(now)
        
        Removing introduced species
        
        habitat restoration
        
        chemical pollution can destroy Habitats , e.g. oil spills
        so, need clean up by using bacteria
        
        Captive Propagation
        
        save keystone species in captive surrounding,
        e.g sichuan panda (loss bamboo and low ovulation,1 day/yr)
      - affect us
        
        Indirect economic value
        
        maintain a healthy ecosystem,
        deforestation -> loss -> cause flooding or soil erosion,
        
        loss nutrients as loss organisms break down organic matter into nutrient
        
        Ethical or esthetic value
        
        Direct economic value
        
        plants are useful in medicines
      - type
        
        Genetic diversity
        
        diff alleles
        higher diversity -> higher adapt to future environmental changes
        
        y sustain?
        
        allele that adapts to a particular environment,
        
        Ecosystem diversity
        
        e.g wolves control elks, not destroy plants too much
        
        Landscape diversity
        
        fragmentation landscape (land conversion) -> change the environment and cause species to become extinct.
        
        Habitat fragmented
        
        Edge effects
        
        area between boundaries have diff habitats
      - Conservation corridors
        
        animals can get cross to other separated landscape areas
      - towards sustainable society
        
        use renewable source, e.g China use 25 %, mainly are hydroelectric and wind power; photovoltaic (solar) cells into solar power
        
        HK: precipitation (rainwater) accounts for 20-30% of the total fresh water demand. water from dongjiang and guangdong,
        
        HK emission: electricity and transports, so use petrol cars(more envr friendly)
        
        Sunny Bay MTR station: no air-con & high-efficiency lighting
        
        ecological footprint
        
        productive land required to support person living
        
        HK is ecological deficit
        
        Eco-tourism: gain money to conserve biodiversity