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Psychopathology (definitions of abnormality (Deviation from social norms
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Psychopathology
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Phobias
Behaviourist explanation
Mowrer = two-process model -
- phobia is aquired through classical conditioning
- phobia is maintained through operant conditioning - e.g. Little Albert
- negative reinforcement - someone w/ a fear will avoid the stimulus/ gain relief from this - the relief they gain maintains the phobia
AO3 -
: :check: good explanatory power - important implications for therapy - less avoidance behaviour = phobia declines
:red_cross: alt. explanations for avoidance behaviour- Buck - some agoraphobics able to leave home w/ a trusted friend - undermines two-process model
:red_cross: two-process model is an incomplete explanation - Seligman = some phobias are innate - problem as this goes against the idea that phobias are simply a result of conditioning
Treatment
Systematic Desensitisation -
- based on classical conditioning - gradual exposure to phobic stimulus
- patient creates an anxiety hierarchy w/ therapist - work through the stages from least scary to most scary - work through this AT OWN PACE
- patient is taught relaxation techniques to use during session
Flooding -
- immediate exposure to phobic stimulus
- quick learning through extinction (exhaustion of fear response) - no option of avoidance behaviour
- patient must give informed consent due to unpleasant nature of flooding
AO3 -
:check: SD is effective - Gilroy found that SD can have lasting results
:check: suitable for a range of patients - most appropriate treatment for those w/ learning difficulties as alternatives such as flooding may cause too much distress - SD is an ideal treatment
:red_cross: flooding is not suitable for some types of phobias e.g. social phobias - these phobias have cognitive elements so coming into connect with the phobic stimulus may not make it go away
Characteristics
Emotional
- Anxiety/ fear
- Unreasonable responses
Cognitive
- Selective attention to phobic stimulus
- Irrational beliefs
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Depression
Cognitive Explanation -
Beck's cog. theory of depression -
- faulty information processing - some people more prone to depression as they think in a flawed way e.g. focusing on negative aspects of situations/ thinking in black and white terms
- negative self-schemas - interpret all information about themselves in a negative way
- negative triad - negative view of world, future and self
Ellis' ABC model -
-A - activating event - depression arises from irrational thoughts from a negative event e.g. failing a test
- B - beliefs - negative events cause irrational beliefs - 'musterbation' - the belief that we must succeed
- C - consequences - emotional and behavioural consequences to irrational beliefs - e.g. the need succeed then failing can result in depression
AO3 -
:check: Beck's theory has supporting evidence - e.g. Grazioli and Terry in study of women's cog. vulnerability to depression before and after giving birth - those w/ higher vulnerability more likely to have post-natal depression
:red_cross: Beck's theory doesn't explain all aspects of depression - Jarret notes that some sufferers have hallucinations or bizarre beliefs - Beck's explanation does not cover all the factors
:red_cross: Ellis' theory is only a partial explanation - although some cases do arise as a result of an activating event, others have no simple explanation
Treatment - CBT
Beck's CBT
- patient and therapist work together to find root of depression
- irrational thoughts are challenged - patient takes an active role in treatment
- patient given homework to record people are nice to them - used in later sessions to challenge negative thoughts of self to prove that they are wrong
Ellis' REBT -
- an extension of ABC model - ABCDE
- D = dispute irrationalité beliefs
- E = effect
- therapist challenges irrational beliefs through imperial and logical argument
- behavioural action - patient gradually decreases isolation and inches social activities.
AO3 -
:check: CBT is effective - March compared effectiveness of CBT compared to antidepressants - found CBT to have better/ longer lasting effects - real life application
:red_cross: may not work in the most severe cases - in severe cases the patient may be unable to motivate themselves to go to CBT/ participate in it - can be treated with antidepressants to kick-start the process.
:red_cross: overemphasis on cognition - McCusker -
Characteristics
Cognitive
- poor concentration
- absolutist thinking - 'black and white'
Behavioural
- reduced activity levels
- disruption to eating/ sleeping behaviour
Emotional
- lowered mood-feeling worthless/empty
- anger - aggression/ self-harm
OCD
Biological Explanation
Genetic explanations
- Candidate Genes- certain genes have been found to cause OCD e.g serotonin and dopamine genes
- Polygenic - caused by many different genes - Taylor suggested 230 genes involved in OCD
- Different types of OCD - the group of genes that cause OCD in person may be different to the group that causes OCD in another
AO3
:check: supporting evidence - Nestadt found 68% of MZ twins shared OCD compared to 31% of DZ twins - strongly supports genetic explanations
:red_cross: little predictive value - many candidate genes have been identified which all increase the risk of OCD by a fraction - not useful in predicting the likelihood of acquiring OCD
Neural explanations
- low levels of serotonin - normal transmission of mood-related info is affected - leads to lower mood
- impairment of frontal lobes - seen in some cases of OCD - leads to problems in decision making
- abnormal functioning of parahippocampal gyrus - the processing of unpleasant emotions is affected
AO3
:check: supporting evidence - Nestadt found that OCD symptoms form part of biological conditions such as Parkinson's disease
:red_cross: co-morbidity - people w/ OCD often become depressed - unclear as to whether the abnormal distribution of serotonin is due to OCD or depression
Treatment Drug Therapy -
- main aim is to change levels of neurotransmitters in the brain - OCD often associated with low levels of serotonin
- SSRIs - prevent reabsobiton and breakdown of serotonin which increases its levels and compensates for natural lack of serotonin
- SSRIs can take 3-4 months to have an effect in the patient
- often used alongside CBT
SNRIs can be used if SSRIs don't work
AO3 -
:check: effective - Soomro reviewed 17 studies which compared SSRIs with placebos - in all 17 studies the SSRIs had a better effect - av. 70% reduction of symptoms for those taking SSRIs
:red_cross: side-effects - e.g loss of sex drive, disruption to blood pressure/ heart rhythm - causes some people to stop taking the drugs
:check: use of drugs is cost-effective - cheap in comparison to psychiatric treatments. patients can carry on w/ everyday life unlike w/ other treatments
Characteristics
Emotion
- anxiety and distress
- guilt and disgust
Cognitive
- obsessive thoughts
- insight into excessive anxiety
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