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Theory and Curriculum in Early Childhood Education (Freire Unknown (During…
Theory and Curriculum in Early Childhood Education
Dewey
Student-centered learning
Progressive education
Learning by doing and having active experiences
Believed that teachers played an important role in education by creating opportunities for active experience in the form of activities which allowed for students to make meaningful connections
Reflective practice
Maria Montessori
Most well-known educationalists in the field of early childhood
Stressed the importance of learning beginning with the senses
Importance of freedom and individual choice
Believed that the environment should be structured in a way to where children are able to choose their own activities using resources which scaffold learning
Child-centered environment
Froebel
German educator
Developed a supportive curriculum and environment for young children and named it KiNdErGaRtEn
His garden for children was inspired by his philosophy that
early childhood education can be a joy and effective
Like plants, children, in their quest for growth and development, required watering (
nurturing
) and care (
health
)
Viewed play as children's "inner" and "outer" pathways
developed a series of gifts
Piaget
Studied how children learn and think
Focused on his work in 3 specific areas: how children acquire knowledge, how their thinking differs from adults, and how cognitive development can be classified into stages
Believed that children learn through their own interactions and making meaning of those interactions
Believed that children passed through a series of stages
When passing through each stage, he believed that it is necessary for each stage to be successfully accomplished before going onto the next one
Four Stages of Development:
Sensorimotor (0-2 years old)
infant makes sense of the world through sensory experiences and develop object permanence
Preoperational (2-7 years old)
they can only view the world from their own point of view and has difficulty understanding the concept of conservation
Concrete Operational (7-12 years old)
able to perform more complex mental operations and can solve real world or concrete problems
Formal Operational (12-19 years old)
no longer require concrete objects to solve problems and are able to carry out mental problems in their heads using abstract terms
Assimilation and Accommodation
Vygotsky
Believed that a child's social and cultural background would shape their cognitive development
Role of the teacher is crucial
Believed that the manner of interaction between adult and child was a core factor in cognitive development
Zone of Proximal Development
Children learn through social interactions
Wrote
Thought and Language
which discussed the importance of language and learning
Compare and Contrast Piaget and Vygotsky
Skinner
Born in Pennsylvania and initially had a career as a writer
Believed that psychology should be approached scientifically and only that which was observable should be measurable
Operant Conditioning
Believed that behavior is determined by consequences and application of these will increase the possibility of a behavior occurring again
positive reinforcement- pleasant stimulus is presented after a desired behavior is exhibited
Example: Turning homework in to receive a good grade
negative reinforcement- a stimulus is presented after a desired behavior is exhibited
Example: A teacher exempts student from the final test if they have perfect attendance
positive punishment- presenting aversive consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited
Example: when a student misbehaves in class, she receives a time out
negative punishment- certain reinforcing stimulus is removed after particular undesired behavior
Example: taking away recess after a child blurts out in class
In today's schools, components of Skinner's theory have been adopted into the school behavioral policies such as, reward/token systems, stickers, praise, and whole group rewards
Pestalozzi
Family plays a big role in a child's education
Believed that all children should receive free and accessible education and environment
Believed that children under the age of six could benefit more from practices designed for their age
Converted his farm into a school for poor children
Swiss Educator
Bloom
Born in Pennsylvania and got his masters in psychology
Believed privilege and social class played a large part in deciding whether a child "did well"
Mostly known for Bloom's taxonomy, the 3 domains of learning:
cognitive: mental skills (knowledge) always start from bottom
knowledge- facts, recall, categorization, theories, and abstractions
comprehension- making sense of what things mean and how they relate to each other
application- applying knowledge to different situations
analysis- breaking down knowledge into its constituent parts to gain a clearer understanding of the whole
synthesis- bringing together the separate constituents to create a new whole
evaluation- reflecting on knowledge and making judgments
affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude or self)
receiving- taking messages and responding to stimulus
responding- taking responsibility by responding to and seeking to find out
valuing- recognizing that something is worth doing
organizing and conceptualizing- individual develops their own way of arranging responses to stimuli and develops particular attitudes based on a set of values
characterizing by value or value concept- bringing together ideas, beliefs, and attitudes
psychomotor- manual or physical skills
reflex movements, basics fundamental movements, perceptual abilities, physical abilities, skilled movements, and non-discursive communication
Bruner
Born in New York City
Driven by a sense of social justice/poverty in his efforts for educational change
Published the
Process of Education
in 1960: He displayed ideas of cognitive development and how children represent concepts
His work was very influenced by his quest for social justice
1st project: Head Start Program
2nd project: Man: A Course of Study
Spiral curriculum: when you revisit topics, you give greater depth
3 Learning Modes:
Enactive mode- children do things for themselves through action and play
Iconic mode- children comprehend images, pictures, and numbers
Symbolic mode- children can understand abstraction, language, and reason
Stressed the importance of the home environment and how the mother plays a role in the linguistic process of the child
Bronfenbrenner
Born in Moscow and moved to the United States when he was 6
Centered his work on the idea that human development was influenced by social structure that the individual was part of
Strong advocate for family values
His ideas were influential in the introduction of the Head Start program
Specifically studied the factors which directly impact on the developing child, in particular the child's environment and the system of relationships within that environment
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological System
Microsystem- relationships/activities in the child's closest surroundings. These interactions directly influence the social interactions with which the child engages
Ex- family, home, school
Mesosystem- intertwined and connected to microsystem. The relationships formed between the different components within the microsystem and the quality and frequency of these interactions impact the child.
Ex- friend's mom, parent/teacher relationship
Exosystem- a part of the child's environment which they are not a direct part of but It still influences their development
Ex- work, neighborhood, mass media
Macrosystem- this layer refers to general prototypes, existing in the culture or subculture, that set the pattern for the structures and activities occurring at the concrete level
Ex- laws, customs, cultural values in which the child belongs
Chronosystem- Bronfenbrenner acknowledged that human ecology changes over time
External change- separation of parents Internal change- physiological changes
Freire
His own childhood in deprived and impoverished north-east Brazil made him aware of the reality of inequality and oppression
Freire's educational thinking emerged while developing adult literacy programs in north-east Brazil
Following the success of these programs, the Brazilian Ministry of Education asked him to implement a national literacy scheme
This work was stopped and he was arrested and sent to exile in Chile
During his tenure as Secretary of Education, he formulated and implemented many progressive educational policies
Revising and promoting adult and community education
Restructuring of the curricula
Making schools more democratic places of learning
His idea was to popularize education and to make literacy accessible but wanted to discard traditional pedagogical methods
Cultural circles- all students were encouraged to exchange thoughts and take part in a dialogue of ideas that were considered and the topics for debate had direct connection to the realities of their lives
Stresses the importance of dialogue for teachers themselves, in that they learn more about the environment and culture they work in and how they themselves feel and think about the world
concept of dialogue emerged from cultural circles
Offerend problem-posing education (originated from cultural circles)- the teacher's role is to pose problems to the learners regarding features of their lives
Dialogue
Praxis
Conscientization
Held a strong belief that education was a significant factor in freeing people from oppression
bell hooks
American scholar, author, feminist, progressive educator, and social activist
The motivation for her writing on education came from her own experiences of how she was influenced by teachers from her time in school
Wrote a trilogy of influential, and radical, educational books
1st trilogy-
Teaching to Transgress
Set of 14 essays which endeavor to consider the associations between engaged pedagogy and matters of gender, race, and class
2nd trilogy-
Teaching Community
Enabled hooks to build on the success of the first in that the broad and diverse essays were drawn from a wide section of society not just those directly involved in teaching
3rd trilogy-
Teaching Critical Thinking
Covers a diverse range of issues, with the same focus on gender, race, and class
The core theme of her work stresses that issues of gender, race, and class distinctions are not viewed as being more than the other
Engaged pedagogy- a teaching approach which strives to re-establish students' motivation to think critically as part of the learning process
Involves critical thinking enables students and teachers to face their feelings and rebuild connections with others in secure and trusting learning communities
Stresses the use of voice as a crucial component of engaged pedagogy and in the promotion of critical thinking
Schön
Born in Massachusetts in 1930
Obtained a masters and doctorate in philosophy
Was a successful musician and musical improv prompted him to consider how It may be used in a professional setting
Worked with Raymond Hainer developing ideas on structure and effectiveness of organizations
Firmly believed in self-reflection being an essential part of the learning process
Published
The Reflective Practitioner
Had most significant influence on professional development
Tactic knowledge- automatic and intuitive knowledge that an individual has
Believed this was reflected in one's actions and coined phrase "knowing-in action"
Observed that few people were able to verbally express this knowledge
Expressed the risk of teacher becoming a "technician" in the conflict between theory and practice
Teachers must question the context and values before just "delivering content"
Reflection
Reflective practice- dialogue of thinking and doing through which one becomes more skillful
Involves action and support in framing reflection
Reflection-in-action (thinking on one's feet) should be followed up with reflection-on-action (evaluating how effective the action was)
Suggests that teachers can benefit from sharing these moments with each other
Reflections should be based around action strategies and consequences
Single loop learning- changes occur in response to an action when an unexpected situation occurs
Double loop learning- person examines if changes need to be made before considering actions
Kolb
American psychologist/ educational theorist
Best known for his research on experimental learning and learning styles, adult education
Experimental learning cycle theory
Believes the concept of ‘learning through experience’ is one of the most important processes by which learning occurs
Sees learning as ‘the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience’
Theorized that learning occurred through the progression of a four stage cycle.
Process as a continuous cycle ; on the completion of one cycle, the learner moves onto the next stage
Through this process, a learner gains new experiences, perspectives, understanding and knowledge.
2 main aspects of learning cycle
The concrete or immediate experiences which are used to create meaning from a learning experience
The feedback from these experiences form the basis for goal-directed actions and self evaluations
Theory suggests that people will naturally form a preference of a particular learning style
Learning style inventory
Learning can be categorized into four individual learning styles
Diverger
combining CE and RO. “Learns best when standing back, listening and observing; from collecting information and thinking it though, through different perspectives and grasping the bigger picture
Assimilator
Combining AC and RO. “Learns best when reviewing things in terms of systems. Concepts, models, theories; when absorbing ideas and providing integrated explanations/theories.”
Converger
combining AC and AE. “Learns best when integrating theory and practice; in the workshop or laboratory using skills/ learning and testing theories and applying common sense; with clear goals and rewards; with things rather than people.”
Accommodator
combining CE and AE. “Learns best by doing things; from short here and now tasks; in carrying out plans/ experiments; through trial and error/ taking risks; with other people.”
Each individual has an orientation towards one of these learning styles, and by identifying a particular learning style it is possible to tailor learning to meet the needs of each individual
Concrete experience (CE), Reflective observation (RO), Abstract conceptualization (AC) and active experimentation (AE)
Argued that each learner would have partiality to either feeling versus thinking (CE vs. AC) or watching versus doing (RO vs. AE)
Social situated learning
Theorists Involved:
Wenger
Teacher > PhD at University of California, Irvine in Artificial Intelligence
Independent researcher and author
Lave
PhD at Harvard in 1968 - Anthropologist with interest in social theory
Interested in the way learners interact socially between themselves and their educational institutions
Situated learning- social engagement (interaction, culture, politics, etc.) as a way of knowing and learning
Meaning: way of talking about our changing ability to be meaningful
Practice: way of talking about shared resources and perspectives for sustained engagement in action
Community: way of talking about social configurations
Identity: way of talking about how learning changes who we are and creates personal histories
Peripheral participation: gradually become more competent in mastery of skill and knowledge from more experienced members (old-timers)
Communities of practice: groups who engage in shared activities for certain purpose
Mutual engagement
Joint enterprise
Shared repertoire
Giroux
Master's degree in History
During Vietnam War, developed strong sense of social justice and wanted to be a teacher
Leading authority in critical pedagogy
Critical Pedagogy components: give power to student by transforming the association between the learner and teachers with the goal to achieve social reformation equality
Neoliberalism
saw this as a way of serving needs of private advantage where economic advancement becomes more important than matters of social democracy
students need to be able do in-depth learning and problem solving and reflect on it
Corporate public pedagogy
purpose to serve the individual in a competitive environment where material gain was in the forefront
served only the needs of the privileged learner of the governing and middle classes at the expense of the disadvantaged
Incorporated post modernism and feminism
there is no right or wrong answers but many sides of the problem
takes into account differences and complexities of education and its culture to create a empowering learners to rise against social limitations
culture is to create empowering learners
Feminism side showed that women need an equal say in pedagogical practice and formation of curriculum
Border pedagogy
can draw from different theories of what they learned
used to challenge current boundaries of knowledge
acceptance of connections between knowledge and power
Praxis model
perceives knowledge as accessible to criticism and opinion of authority and coercion
valuable to every student’s lives
Ladson-Billings
Known for theory of culturally relevant pedagogy
She became interested in culture in education and began her research with “what is wrong with African American learners? What is right with these students?”
She believes that culture is always changed
3 components of culturally responsive teaching
Academic success- intellectual growth, providing students with knowledge
Cultural competence- appreciating and celebrating ones cultural while learning about another culture
Socio-political consciousness- taking what you have learned in school to identify, analyze, and solve real-world problems
Culturally sustaining pedagogy 2.0 (in response to static interpretation of culturally relevant pedagogy)
Without growth, there is a “academic death” (when teachers stop caring about how students are learning)
Students as subjects instead of objects
encourages discussions surrounding policies that affect students’ lives outside of school (gun violence, school choice)
incorporating elements of students’ culture into curriculum
first wave program
scholarship program for spoken-word artists (poetry slams, rap, etc)
integrates hip-hop in curriculum
emphasizes youth culture
Reggio Emilia Approach
Reggio Emilia's education philosophy resonates with key ideas of other theorists
Embedded in the Reggio Emilia approach to education is the image of children, families, and teachers working together
Reggio Emilia has helped bridge the divide between early and elementary educators in 3 ways:
Revealing new ways for promoting children's academic learning
Collaborative projects
Offering documentation as a tool
Taking pictures, recording videos, using samples of children's work
Provoking a new way to think about the role of the teacher
Teachers listen to and observe children closely, ask questions, and explore the ideas that children have
Based on: child-centered learning, creativity, collaboration, environment in which the child is in, documentation, and involvement of families
Pros:
Helps children go into a deeper level of thinking and understanding
Allows for children to explore and discover new ideas
Allows for children to learn how to work with their peers in a positive way
Child-centered learning; based on children's needs
Cons:
Cultural challenges
Sharp contrast to a growing emphasis in the US on high-stakes testing, view of teachers as tools, and focus on individual learning
Teacher loss of control
Not a set curriculum since the teacher follows the children's interests and makes plans around their interests
Montessori Vs. Waldorf
Compare and contrast of Montessori and Waldorf Schools
Montessori Schools
Pros
Hands-on learning experiences
There is no "teaching to the test"
Self-directed environment which creates a sense of independence
Focus on real-world experiences
Cons
Curriculum is based around the child which makes it less structured
Classroom is set up to allow movement and change in which some children may not thrive in this setting
Not enough group activity
Waldorf Schools
Pros
Children are taught far more than just subject areas; they are taught social responsibility, respect, and other knowledge appropriate for the real-world
Stronger relationships due to teacher staying with same children for 8 years
Arts being taught within academics
Imagination and fantasy are a big part of education
Cons
Academics aren't taught until the age of 7
Not all children would be fit for this education due to the major focus of arts
Core part of teacher training is anthroposophy
