CULTURE & IDENTITY - SOCIOLOGY
HYBRID IDENTITY- a new form of identity that emerges as a result of a combination of different types of identity - increasing forms of hybrids as identity becomes for complex and chosen - also linked to globalisation and the increasing influence of the mass media
CONCEPT OF IDENTITY
THEORIES
DEFINITIONS
How we see ourselves and how others see us
Individual Identity
Woodward- individual identity is about asking 'who am I?'
Cooley- Identity is a looking glass self - looking glass self is the tendency for one to understand oneself through their own understanding of the perception which others hold of them
Social Identity Theory - our unique understanding of ourselves - socialisation shapes identity
Achieved=gained as a result of personal actions
Ascribed=involuntarily gained, acquired at birth
ETHNICITY
Group Identity
A group of people with common ancestry who share a common and distinctive culture
Geographical Origins- links with a country of origin are important and ethnic identity may involve seeing oneself as 'Pakistani', 'Indian, or 'Irish'
Ethnic identity is transmitted from one generation to the next by agencies of socialisation
SEWELL- black identities reinforced by student coping with stereotypes by forming subcultures with peer group
JOHAL- concept of Brasian identity (British Asian); influenced by two culture's difference agencies of socialisation. Adopt most appropriate identity in situations
NAYAK- white wannabes and Jafracians - example of hybrid identities
Aspects of identity & associated cultural characteristics
nationality
ethnicity
gender
social class
sexuality
age
disability
NATIONALITY
Education- common history and literature
Family- language and food
National identity is the sense of a nation as a cohesive world- usually represented by distinctive traditions and culture
Media- state occasions, sporting events
Religion- christian culture and values
Politics- promotion of British values
HALL- every nation has a collection of shared experiences that people use to construct identity
SCHUDEN- British people are socialised into British identity by a variety of agencies of socialisation
PALMER- national identity is promoted by heritage tourism - the rise of global culture is eroding traditional national values
PROFESSOR HALSEY- our lives are becoming hopelessly Americanised
GENDER
the social construction of male and female characteristics
Socialisation into different gender roles begins at home
Manipulation- encouraging behaviour that is stereotypically acceptable for that gender
Canalisation- channelling children's interests into gendered possessions -e.g toys and clothing
Activity Exposure- participating in activities that reinforce gender stereotypes
ANN OAKLEY- feminist, believes gender roles are socially constructed
MEAD- gender roles are constructed by societies rather than through biology - her study found tribes with totally reversed gender roles
RW CONNELL- hegemonic masculinity, dominant position in society
MAC & GHAILL- crisis of masculinity since 80's, rise of the 'new man'
JACKSON- concept of ladettes, e.g high rates of violence in the UK
TALCOTT PARSONS- females have expressive roles - focused on child bearing
SEXUALITY
SOCIAL CLASS
Subjective social class- based upon what people think they are
Objective social class- uses measurement - e.g NC-SEC scale has 8 classes
the way people are grouped in terms of their occupation, income lifestyle and attitude
Upper Class- aristocracy, owners, famous - have a high culture and strong sense of identity
MOONEY the upper class is highly separated from society
Middle Class- professionals, managers, white collar workers - have commitment to education & employment, family self interest, recognise importance of ambition/effort
SAVAGE- it 's difficult to generalise about a shared middle class
Working Class- manual, blue collar workers, traditional & new - used to be the largest class, close-knit communities, expressions of class unity, popular culture, traditional families
Under Class- bottom of the ladder, unemployed, rely on benefits - Owen Jones Book= 'Chavs' demonstration of working class - MURRAY- proposed underclass
HOGGART- working class have strong moral values
BOURDIEU- cultural capital
GRAMSCI- institutions reinforce social class positions, civil society manufactures consent over the proletariat
WEBER- life chances
sexuality describes the way an individual expresses themselves as a sexual being
Changing attitudes- UK - homosexuality legalised in 1967 - civil partnerships 2005 - marriage 2014
MCINTOSH- homosexual males fulfil the labels placed upon them to meet social expectations - therefore society changes their behaviour
FOUCAULT- the way sexuality is expressed depends on events in society - 50yrs ago homosexuality was a crime and an illness and now it's widely accepted
GAUNTLETT- LGBT people are under-represented in the mainstream media
GLAAD- Hollywood still uses derogatory terms and under-represent gay/bisexual people
RICH- women's sexuality is oppressed by men in patriarchal societies
AGE
Age identity has changed over time, suggesting age is a social construction
Ageism- older people are more likely to experience this due to negative stereotype assumptions - can lead to discredited identity
Stages of life
-Childhood- emerged when literacy enabled adults to shield children
-Youth- constructed as transition and time of rebellion
-Adulthood- characterised by career and family responsibilities 'mid life crisis
-Old Age- ageing represents degeneration
ARIES- in medieval times there was not a concept of childhood
MAHANKOVA- theory of active ageing, there is more individual choice in ageing - those in poverty are less likely to experience this
LASLETT- concept of the third age, new generation of retired people who are relatively young
HOCKEY & JAMES- their study on the concept of infantilisation found that old people were losing their 'personhood status'
DISABILITY
a physical or mental impediment preventing normal life
Medical model- defines a disabled person by their impairment
Social model- disability is a social construct, created by assumptions of normality and abnormality
FIKELSTEIN- negative perceptions of disabilities are caused by the emphasis of work as a source of status - industrialisation - the disabled became a burden
GOFFMAN- discredited identities because people assume they aren't self sufficient
WATSON- learned helplessness, socialised into inferiority
SCOTT- self fulfilling prophecy study 1969 supported Watson's theory