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Politics (Term 1 (Week 3 (20+ years following the end of the Cold War, we…

- - - - ‘Political Systems’ = ‘Regimes’
        
        Regimes are deeper and/or broader than governments
        
        Political regimes are embedded in wider social systems
        
        Change in Government:
        
        Ex: Conservatives win UK election in 2010
        Ex: Raul Castro replaces Fidel Castro as Cuban leader
        
        Change in regime:
        
        Castro’s Cuban revolution overthrows military dictatorship
        US-UK depose Saddam in 2003; de-Ba’athification
      - Aristotle's classification:
        
        Who benefits?
        
        rulers,
        
        all
        
        who rules?
        
        one person, the few, the many
        
        Tyranny, oligarchy, democracy
        
        Monarchy, Aristocracy, Polity
    - - Western Polyarchies or Liberal Democracies
      - New Democracies
      - East Asian Regimes
      - Islamic Regimes
      - Military Regimes
    - - The State - Five Characteristics:
        
        Sovereign: the state holds absolute and unrestricted power.
        
        ‘Sovereign is he who decides on the exception’ Karl Schmitt, Political Theology and in the work of Agamben.
        
        Public institutions: as opposed to private.
        
        Exercise in legitimation: procedural account of the state. Law is legitimate because it is created by the state, which is an expression of the people.
        
        Instrument of domination: the state ‘lays claim to the monopoly on the legitimated use of physical force’ (Weber, Politics as a Vocation). Initially developed by Jean Bodin’s The Six Lives of the Republic, and Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan.
        
        Territorial association: all of the above encompasses, and is limited by, geography.
  - - - Forms of Democracy
        
        Classical Democracy
        
        Form of democracy that existed in the Ancient Greek city-state of Athens (around 400 BC)
        
        Was a form of Direct Democracy where all eligible citizens took part in all political decisions
        
        Met as a group almost once a week to vote on how Athens should be run
        
        Pure form of democracy
        
        However...
        
        Not democratic in today’s sense of the word
        
        Only men who were born in Athens and were 20 years or older could vote
        
        Protective Democracy
        
        Idea was not that of mass participation but:
        
        protecting individuals from the government
        
        Those in power could only rule through consent
        
        For consent to be given to those in power this must be done through elections and representation
        
        Political participation is limited to elections for most citizens
        
        Humans had natural rights that could not be taken away by the government
        
        Developmental Democracy
        
        Aim was to create the good citizen or to develop citizens, and hence society
        People are only free when they continuously participate in the shaping of their community
        
        Elections not enough
        
        Free people develop
        
        Continuous participation needed for development
        
        Belief that through participation citizens become less selfish and put the general will before their own
        Requires government to be decentralised to the lowest possible level
        
        1 more item...
        
        Democracy was an educational experience
        
        People’s Democracy
        
        Argued that
        
        Western democracy was not truly democratic, as the bourgeoisie maintained dominant positions in government
        The Communist Party should rule without elections
        
        Communist Party would rule in the interests of the working class
        
        This would eventually destroy class divisions
        In a classless society, ‘democracy’ was redundant
        
        Power tends to corrupt
        
        Problem: Communist Party had no accountability
        
        Not subject to elections or a Constitution
        
        Becomes a dictatorship
  - - - four ways of thinking about politics:
        
        Politics as the Art of Government
        
        the art Chancellor Bismarck had in mind was the art of government, the exercise of control within society through the making and enforcement of collect decisions
        
        Focus is almost solely on governmental institutions:
        
        Executives
        
        Legislators
        
        Judiciary
        
        Politics as Public Affairs
        
        On the basis of this 'public/private' division, politics is restricted to the activites of the state itself and the responsibilities that are properly exercised by public bodies
        
        restricted to the public realm
        
        Politics as Compromise and Consensus
        
        resolving conflict: that is, by compromise, conciliation and negotiation, rather than through force and naked power
        
        Politics as Power
        
        In this sense, politics takes place at every level of social interaction; it can be found within families and amongst small groups of friends just as much as amongst nations and on the global stage.
        
        faces of power
        
        power as agenda setting
        
        as thought control
        
        Power as decision-making
  - - - Legislative Branch debates and passes the law and acts (UK Parliament or US Congress)
      - Executive Branch enforces and executes the law and acts (UK Prime Minister or President)
      - Judicial Branch interprets and evaluates the law and acts (UK Supreme Court or US Supreme Court)
        
        Both must be done through an interpretation of the Constitution
        
        Can declare actions to be unconstitutional
        
        This is called Judicial Review
  - - - Liberalism
        
        Social contract theory:
        
        Individuals had sovereign authority over their property from God
        
        Dual sense of property: their own properties (i.e. thought and bodies), as well as things they owned
        
        Purpose of the state was to enforce contracts between individuals
        
        Individualism:
        
        Most important element: human individuals come before any group
        Goal is to create society in which humans can develop in their own way
        
        Freedom:
        
        Connected to individualism: an individual is only able to develop in a free society
        But this is expressed as ‘freedom under the law’
        
        Toleration
        
        Speech, religion, culture: society should be multicultural
        Locke’s A Letter Concerning Toleration said everyone should be tolerated, except for Catholics and atheists. Why?
        
        Equality
        
        All individuals are born equal
        
        Equality of opportunity
        
        Society becomes a meritocracy
        
        Reason
        
        Humans are driven by ‘reason’
        
        Faith in humans to make wise choices and judgements
        
        Belief that humans prefer peaceful debate and argument over that of war and bloodshed
        
        Progress
        
        Consent
        
        All forms of relationship must be based on consent
        Government must based on consent (democracy)
        
        Constitutionalism
        
        Limited government
        Relationship of the government must be defined by a fully written constitution
      - Conservatism
        
        Tradition
        
        The central theme of Conservatism: ‘the desire to conserve’
        
        Can result in radical change in order to conserve
        
        Values, institutions, traditions, the wisdom of history
        
        Helps to explains the UK’s anti-European stance
        
        Pragmatism
        
        Base actions and political decisions on reality not on an ideology
        Concerned with what works
        
        Human Imperfection
        
        Humans are self-interested beings
        
        The root of all crime is the morally corrupt individual
        
        Need a strong and powerful state, and tough laws
        
        Organicism
        
        Society is seen as a whole
        
        Individual is less important than families, groups, nation
        
        Should be a shared and common culture for all
        
        Hierarchy
        
        There are necessarily different roles and classes in society
        Inequality may exist, but this is a natural part of society
        
        Authority
        
        People must be governed and guided by the government
        
        Property
        
        Property and private ownership is essential as it gives people freedom from the government but also encourages a sense of responsibility
      - Socialism
        
        Community
        
        Community and a sense of community in society is the core element of Socialism
        All humans are a product of their environment, not their social class
        
        Fraternity
        
        Humanity is bound together by brotherhood
        Cooperation is much better than competition
        
        Social Equality (most important)
        
        Believe in individuals as equals
        
        Equality of Outcome not Opportunity
        
        Social equality provides social stability
        
        Promotes and encourages mutual respect
        
        Need
        
        Redistribution of wealth from rich to the poor
        
        Hunger, thirst, health, security, shelter, needs to be provided
        
        Forms a normative basis for Communism
        
        Social Class
        
        Principal political goal is to eradicate/lessen the gaps between the social classes
        
        Common Ownership
        
        Collective use of material sources for society
        
        NHS, education, benefits, housing…
        
        Either re-distribution (basic income i.e. Utrecht, Switzerland) or state ownership (railways, telecoms, infrastructure)
      - Feminism
      - Anarchism
      - Fascism
      - definition: ‘a set of ideas that in some way guides or inspires political actions’ – Andrew Heywood, Politics
- - - - Enterprise economy
        
        Form of Capitalism found in the US, UK
        
        Very little government intervention in the economy
        
        Profit driven
        
        High Productivity
        
        Labour Flexibility (movement of workers) - for better or worse
        
        Very weak trade unions
        
        negatives:
        
        Large social inequalities
        
        Poverty in the US and inequality in the US and UK
        
        Poor education for many
        
        Reinforces the social class system
      - Social capitalism
        
        Weak and growing industries are given protection against foreign companies (protectionism)
        
        Local banks invest in local companies and hence have an interest in their survival and success (investments are long term)
        
        Strong Trade Unions negotiate with industry to set industry-wide wage levels
        
        Strong welfare element
        
        negatives:
        
        But...with heavy long term investments and negotiations the economy is inflexible
        
        Struggles to quickly adapt to the changing demands of the market (profits down)
        
        High taxation needed to protect workers and companies (government spending up). Is this necessarily bad?
      - Collective Capitalism
        
        Defining feature is the emphasis on cooperation and long-term relationships between businesses and workers
        
        negatives:
        
        Huge demands on workers and their families
        
        Very long hours
        
        Workers’ duty is placed above workers’ rights
        
        Can lead to (過労死) karōshi ("death from overwork", or occupational sudden death)
      - State socialism
        
        State planning for every sector of the economy
        
        For the most part it eradicated homelessness, unemployment, and absolute poverty
        Created almost 100% literacy rates in some countries, and universal healthcare systems
        
        Negatives:
        
        But no “real” wealth in society
        
        People didn’t always have an actual job to do
        
        System didn’t promote enterprise, innovation, new industries, or economic efficiency
  - - - four models of representation:
        
        Trustee Model
        
        Will go to represent this constituency (small area or group) in Parliament
        
        Does not represent your opinions or views, but your interests
        
        He/she uses his or her judgement to serve you and make decisions that will benefit the constituency
        
        Basic idea: People don’t always know what is best for them
        
        Negatives:
        
        Suggests that the people who are being represented are ignorant, uneducated, and just plain stupid
        
        Also elitist/paternalist: those with the best education and understanding should act in the interests of the less fortunate
        
        Contradiction: if this is the case, why let such people elect a representative in the first place?
        
        Delegate Model
        
        Rather than using their own actual judgement, the representative will only represent the people’s views
        In this sense he or she is called a delegate
        
        Negatives
        
        Delegates/representatives are bound to whatever the people want
        
        Leads to greater conflict and little negotiation
        
        Politicians no longer lead the people, or offer vision and inspiration
        
        Mandate Model
        
        they reflect the views of their party (Labour, Conservatives, Lib Dems)
        
        Holds politicians to account and we know what they will do once elected as they must follow the political party’s manifesto (their mandate; programme)
        
        Negatives:
        
        It presumes that voters are well informed and know what a party will stand for
        
        Doesn’t consider the personalities of charismatic politicians (Ex: Tony Blair; Hugo Chavez)
        
        This model may limit a government and leave it little room to adjust to new problems once in power (crisis)
        
        Resemblance Model
        
        A legislative body (such as the UK Parliament or the US Congress) should reflect the population. In other words, elected officials should look like the country:
        
        Class
        
        Gender
        
        Race
        
        Religion
  - - - Four categories of Nationalism:
        
        Conservative Nationalism
        
        Expansionist Nationalism
        
        Liberal Nationalism
        
        Anti-colonial Nationalism
      - Where do nations come from?
        
        Primordialism
        
        Modernism
        
        Ethno-symbolism
  - - - Debating Political Culture: modes of analysis
        
        Civic Culture
        
        Argued that Civic Culture is a blend of the three political cultures – a balance between (1) activity, the belief that people may influence a government, but also (2) that people are also willing to obey
        
        Hence they argued that this blend of political cultures creates the conditions for democracy (we are naturally political animals...)
        In other words, this Civic Culture determines the way we act politically
        
        3 types of political culture:
        
        Participant political culture: citizens pay close attention to politics, and participate actively in it
        
        Subject political culture: more passive citizens, realise they can only have a limited influence on government
        
        Parochial political culture: no sense of citizenship, people identify with locality rather than nation
        
        Ideological Hegemony
        
        Our Political Culture (what we believe) is not a product of Civic Culture but is really a product of ideas that are put into our heads in two ways: class and ideology
        
        Political Culture and Civic Culture is nothing more than the ideas of the ruling class (the bourgeois)
        
        The Media