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(Motivation (Slides :smiley: (Latin - "movere" - to move…

- - - - The concept of heaven is related to approach motivation.  The concept of hell is avoidance motivation .. Avoid doing things to make sure you dont go to hell
      - Approach motivation is the energization of behaviour by, or the direction of behaviour toward, positive stimuli (objects, events,
        possibilities), whereas avoidance motivation is the energization of behaviour by, or the direction of behaviour away from, negative stimuli (objects, events, possibilities)
    - - Valence refers to the positive or negative “charge” of stimuli such as objects, events, and possibilities (Elliot & Niesta, 2009; Strack & Deutsch, 2004)..People have a natural tendency to approach positively valenced stimuli and avoid negatively valenced stimuli.
      - Acquiring valence?
        
        The extent to which these stimuli are positively or negatively “charged” and can energize the person to approach or avoid them depends on certain dispositional (temperaments and motives) and situational (visceral states and bodily positions)
        determinants.
        
        Certain stimuli are perceived as positive (e.g. money, tasty foods) or negative (e.g. weapons, dangerous animals) by a large proportion of the population due to their evolutionary value for survival or due to cultural norms and conventions.
    - - Motivation encompasses the energization and direction of behaviour (Elliot & Niesta, 2009; Elliot, 2006).
      - Motivation cannot be precisely defined in a single sentence; to
        understand it, it is necessary to understand the core constructs that constitution motivation: approach and avoidance, valence,
        temperaments, motives, and goals.
      - This seems to come from an evolutionary basis. We have a motive to approach food, and to avoid predators. From an evolutionary perspective, you approach things that will help survival
  - - - Highlights complexity of motivation
        
        A single goal can emerge from multiple sources, and a single source can prompt the adoption of multiple goals
        
        Upper-level constructs, such as motivates and temperaments have different effects on affects, cognition, and behaviour depending on the goals through which these temperamental inclinations and motive dispositions are channelled
      - Offers greater precision regarding the goal construct, enhancing importance and utlity, and affords a more thorough and complete account of motivation
  - - - Goals influence a person as if the goals themselves were selfish and only interested in their own completion (Huang and Bargh, 2014)..
        
        Goal shielding - the activation of goals to which the individual is committed inhibits the accessibility of alternative goals (Shah, 2002
    - - Goals are the channels through which energization is translated into behaviour (=direction).
        
        Features of a goal construct (NIESTA 2009)
        
        Entails approach or avoidance
        
        The object is valenced
        
        Is a commitment
        
        Differs to a wish or a fantasy - restrict the term 'goal' to commitments that have their origin in conscious acts of volution
        
        Focused on an object
        
        Any entity, event, experience,or characteristic (can be concrete or abstract, physical or psychological
        
        Focused on the future
        
        Goals have the possibility of being fully realised in the future. Goal-directed behaviour is viewed as proactive not reactive
        
        Cognitive representation
        
        different from other cognitive representations as it is VALENCED and contains commitment component
        
        Temperaments -> Motives -> Stimulus Valence -> person energised to approach/avoid -? Goal to approach/avoid stimulus is adopted
        
        Not all approach/avoidance tendencies are translated into goalas
    - - This mental representation is presumed to include information
        regarding the goal and the underlying reason that the goal is being pursued.
      - Goal - WHY - HOW
  - - - Visceral states
        
        Hunger - Thirst - Sexual urge - Emotion
      - Body positions
        
        arm flexion/extension - (Strack and Deutsch, 2004; Förster 2003 ) - people eat more cookies watching TV when flexing (vs extending arm)
        
        Van den Bergh, Schmig, & Warlop (2011) – people holding a shopping basket (arm flexion) buy proportionally more vicious items such as chocolate bars compared to people pushing the cart (arm extension).
        
        Leaning/reclining (Harmon-
        Jones et al. 2011). leaning towards the screen led people to buy more chocolate products relative to reclining.
        
        Smiling/frowning (Strack,
        et al. 1988).
    - - Motives
        
        A motive is a dispositional tendency to desire or be fearful of a specific type of positive or negative stimuli in a particular life domain (McClelland 1985; Elliot & Niesta, 2009).
        
        Motives develop early in life through preverbal felt experience and initially operate unconsciously. Over time, motives become more cognitively elaborated and differentiated and individuals may acquire at least some degree of conscious access to the operation of their motives
        
        temperaments determine whether we are generally
        more sensitive to positive or negative stimuli, whereas motives
        determine to which specific positive and negative stimuli we are
        sensitive.
      - Temperament
        
        a general neurobiological sensitivity to positive (approach temperament) or negative (avoidance temperament) stimuli (Elliot & Thrash, 2002; Elliot & Niesta,
        2009).
        
        In other words, some people are more easily motivated by positive stimuli (approach temperament), and some people by negative stimuli (avoidance temperament).
        
        Approach and avoidance temperament can be measured using various scales (note: these scales do not always have approach/ avoidance or temperament in their name). Some of the most known scales are:
        
        Behavioural Inhibition System and Behavioural Activation System Scale (BIS/BAS Scale: Carver & White, 1994). BIS refers to avoidance temperament, and BAS to approach temperament.
        
        Approach and Avoidance Temperament Scale (Elliot & Thrash, 2010).
        
        Some items from the BIS/BAS scale:
        
        Even if something bad is about to happen, i rarely feel nervous (BIS)
        
        I feel pretty worried when I think someone is angry at me (BIS)
        
        When I get something I want, I feel excited and energized (BAS)
        
        e.g. approach temperament individuals will be more mo<vated
        to study if they think of potential positive outcomes (e.g. getting a
        good job, mastering the content, succeeding in life), whereas
        avoidance temperament individuals will be more motivated to study if they think of potential negative outcomes (e.g. failing in life, disappointing their parents, not mastering the content).
        
        Core structual component of personality - unlearned, domain-general predispositions that are part of our biological heritage. Motives, on the other hand, are learned and domain specific and part of socialisation history
  - - - Different to most theories because most theories assume that effort varies with the strength of the motive
        
        between what individuals are willing to do to achieve a purpose and what individuals actually do to achieve the purpose. Although action can match willingness, it frequently does not. The reason is because, as variables, action and willingness have different determinants. One’s willingness to act (i.e., allocate resources) is determined by the significance of the purpose one wishes to achieve.
        
        Brehm’s theory of motivation intensity (Brehm & Self, 1989) represents a break with this tradition. It treats willingness and action as distinct outcomes and proposes that they have underlying determinants that comport with the resource allocation discussion above.
      - - Potential motivation : highest amount of effort (=energy) a person is prepared to invest in goal pursuit, and it is determined by temperaments, motivates, visceral states, and bodily positions
      - - Motivation intensity refers to the amount of effort or energy that is actually employed in goal pursuit
      - Motivation intensity is a function of potential motivation and goal difficulty
        
        How to measure motivation intensity
        
        Cardiovascular response (see Wright, 2008):
        • Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP)
        • Diastolic Blood Pressure (DBP)
        • Heart Rate (HR)
        • Heart pre-ejec<on period
    - - If effort demands exceed potential motivation, effort should be low because its expenditure will be seen as yielding a return of insufficient value.
      - If success seems impossible, effort should be low
        because its expenditure will be seen as yielding no benefit