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What was the extent of social and cultural change in Russia between 1855…
What was the extent of social and cultural change in Russia between 1855-1917?
Culture
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Music
Nicholas II
Became more about freedom and tumult, eg Firebird by Igor Stravinsky
Arts
Alexander II
Volga Bargehaulers (1873)
Portrayed harsh lives of serfs
Used as propaganda of tsarist supporters, favourite painting of Alexander III
Abramtsevo artists' colony (1870)
Influenced populist movement
Alexander III used them to decorate churches
Literature
Alexander II
1860s-1880s: Golden Age
Chernyshevsky
What Is To Be Done (1863), influenced Lenin
Tolstoy
War and Peace, 1869
Turgenev
Sportsman's Sketches (1852), showing the suffering of the serfs
Maxim Gorky
Wrote about social and political problems, the increasingly literate population could read this
Karl Marx's work translated into Russian
Das Kapital, translated by Bakunin in.....find date of translation
Communist Manifesto, translated by Plekhanov in....
Censorship
Alexander II
Relaxed censorship in early part of reign (1865)
TIghtened censorship by Shuvalov
Relaxed again by Loris-Melikov (1880-1881)
Alexander III
1882, Censorship law, government has complete control over publishing
Statute of State Security, 1881, tightening censorship, closing down periodicals/newspapers
Nicholas II
Relaxed censorship in 1905
Religion
By mid-19th century, 70% of the Russian Empire were Orthodox Christians
Alexander II
1868 reforms to improve priests' education
1864: zemstva took over running of primary schools from church, Alexander Golovnin
But Count Tolstoy (Education Minister: 1866-1880) reduced the power of the 1864 school boards which were often dominated by liberal zemstva representatives
Power of church was waning, however it was still strong
Alexander III
Church didn't keep in pace with current society due to conservative ministers like Pobedonostsev
Church grew in power due to Russification
University Statute, 1884, Orthodox Church had more power over primary schools
Social
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Minorities
Alexander II
700,000 Poles given land by Nikolay Milytutin after uprisings
Given favourable treatment (though after Polish Revolt of 1863 there were few more reforms)
Alexander III
Russification, had to adopt Russian way of life
Classes
Middle class
1897: 17,000 doctors
1914: 28,000 doctors
(Change under Nicholas II)
1914: 2,000 successful entrepreneurs (Nicholas II)
Alexander II
Small amount of middle class, very few professionals
Workers
Population of workers grew rapidly in 1880s, in 1900 there were 3 million workers. Though this was only 2.5% of the population
Nobility
Alexander II
Lost influence because of emancipation, gained debt
Made up 1% of the population
Mainly lived in St Petersburg
Were loyal to the tsar in exchange for rewards (typically land, serfs etc...)
Alexander III
Noble's Land Bank (1885)
Owned more businesses, 700 nobles owned businesses in Moscow in 1882
Peasantry
Alexander II
Emancipation, 1861 (Nikolay Milyutin)
90% of Russia in 1861 was peasantry.
50 million out of 60 million were serfs
1/2 of this 50 million was owned by the state
1/2 of this 50 million was privately owne
Used 3 field rotation, old-fashioned techniques
Mir
Had control over the land of the peasantry
Direct and indirect taxes on peasantry
Indirect taxes on salt and vodka made up 30% of government income by 1855
Direct taxes
Peasants paid their lord (member of nobility) either through obrok (rent) or barshcina (work)
Most did barschina
Poll tax, all male peasants paid the same, revenue went towards the army
Made up 25% of government revenue
Serfdom held back the economy,
No consumer market for goods (only via services on a local scale)
Tied up millions of labourers
Census of 1897
Working class: 4%
Upper class: 12.5%
Middle class: 1.5%
Peasantry: 82%
Growth of St Petersburg
1881
St Petersburg: 0.93 million
Moscow: 0.75 million
1897
St Petersburg: 1.37 million
Moscow: 1.17 million
1914
St Petersburg: 2.22 million
Moscow: 1.76 million
Urban population
1867: 7 million
1917: 28 million
Education
Alexander II
1856: 8,000 primary schools
1878: 25,000 primary schools
(nearly 1 million children)
6.5 million primary school students by 1911 (Nicholas II). Only 1/3 were women
1864: zemstva took over running of primary schools from church, employed more professional teachers. Alexander Golovnin
Universities regained right to govern themselves and design courses and choose professors (Golovnin)
Reactionary phase
Count Dmitry Tolstoy (1866-1880)
Ministry of Education took greater control of primary schools
Reduced role of 1864 school boards (often dominated by liberal zemstvo representatives)
Ministry inspectors responsible for appointing teachers/opening schools
Latin/greek favoured over more modern subjects
Entry to uni restricted to those who had had a classical education (favoured nobility)
Nicholas II
Expenditure on education rose:
1896: 5 million roubles
1914: 82 million roubles
40% illiteracy rate by 1914
1914: 39% of university students and ~50% of secondary school students came from poorer social backgrounds
Universities
(Alexander II) 1865: 4,000 students
(Alexander III)1899: 16,000 students
(Nicholas II)1914: 69,000 students
45% were women in universities by 1914
Alexander III
Delyanov (Education Minister, 1882-97)
Told schools not to admit poor students because they don’t belong (1887) (though this wasn't very effective)
University Statute (1884)
Teachers had to be appointed by the Ministry of Education. Chosen for ‘religious, moral and patriotic grounds’ rather than academic ones.
Orthodox Church had more power over primary schools
University courses for women were closed
Students prohibited from gathering in groups of more than 5
Fees in secondary schools raised to exclude lower classes, more nobility