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TOKYO TRIALS (JUSTICES (Only 3/11 were Asian despite Asian countries…

- - - - Some trials - lenient sentences - justified? Dower
- - - - Got immunity in exchange for info - Hal Gold
  - - - Cold War - pragmatic, reliably anti-Communist
      - Abe Shinzo's grandad
      - Kishi role in opium - not mentioned. Role in economy of Manchukuo and therefore forced labour
- - - - Dower argues that prosecution acted as a defence team for the emperor
      - High-level officials willing to sacrifice selves for emperor - still fight and die for him even post-war - Dower
        
        Loyal servants in Sugamo wept with joy when they heard he wouldn't be testifying - Dower
    - - Image changes v quickly after war - images of him in military uniform taken down
      - Censorship of criticism in press
      - Govt kept mostly in tact, purges arbitrary
  - - - Poisonous gas used in China not mentioned in trial
- - - - Embraced the best evidence rule once prosecution rested e.g. a map rather than a description of it
      - Prosecution allowed to submit evidence that did not follow usual rules e.g. letters supposedly written by Japanese citizens with no authentictation
      - Justice Pal complains
- - - - Convicted and executed for failing to stop their actions
  - - - Used in mob trials in US
      - Contact with Germany helped to accuse e.g. Hiroshi Oshima ambassador to Berlin
      - US/Anglo concept of conspiracy
        
        Japanese understanding different to legal
    - - Idea of aggressive war, not war of defence
    - - Idea that atrocities and violence were so widespread they must indicate policy - Dower
      - Denied by all - defense
        
        Defence from US imperialsim - don't recognise own role
      - Totani - defendants didn't all know each other or were political enemies
  - - - However became unfair - allowed to submit work that wouldn't otherwise be allowed e.g. hearsay
      - No way of knowing what would be admissible from day to day - who was on the bench changed
- - - - Admitted moral responsibility but denied legal responsiblity
      - Admitted he knew of a few isolated events but no wide-scale looting and rioting
        
        Contradicts self - opening statement references civilian bodies in city
      - Sentenced to death for it
      - Historial debate around him has centred on this - sympathisers portray as innocent general, detractors as having made serious mistakes and not done enough to prevent, also aware
      - Notorious in China
    - - Emphasis on pan-Asian defence from western imperialism
      - Lots of pan-Asian reveries in trial
    - - likened war against China to a big brother chastising his younger brother
      - Mentioned frequently in trial
  - - - Dower thinks this was to completely exonerate the emperor
    - - Exonerated in Japan - tensions abroad
- - - - Researchers found by Soviets first tried at their trials
        
        US refused to acknowledge them, denouncing as Communist propaganda
  - - - Questioned legitimacy of tribunal and its rulings
        
        Argued that conspiracy to wage aggressive war was not illegal
        
        No evidence that Nanking was product of government policy
        
        Disagreed that a long-running conspiracy was true- more ad hoc responses to perceived threat.
      - Criticised the trials for being done in the spirit of retribution rather than justice
      - Disagreed with the US' role - shouldn't be holding trials due to bomb
        
        Bombs and western colonialism should have been included
      - No judges from defeated nations - victors get revenge
        
        Dower references desire for vengeance
      - Important in memory of trial - honored in Japan
        
        2 shrines have monuments dedicated to him
        
        Revered by nationalists
        
        Given First Class of Order of Sacred Treasure
        
        Admired Japan for standing up to west
        
        Visits to Japan galvanised right - discount trial
    - - Roling - Netherlands
      - Henri Bernard - France
      - Web
      - All submitted opinions at verdicts - trial flawed, hypocrisy and no emperor
        
        Startling - for 2 years hardly even mentioned
  - - - Massively popular
      - Sympathy - seen as victimes of war, not war criminals
    - - Secretly enshrined the kami (spirits worshiped in Shinto) of over 1,000 war criminals in 1978
        
        Including Hideki Tojo
        
        Visits there spark protests from international community e.g. China and SK
    - - Resentment against leaders