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Carbon and Water Cycles (Interdependence: Links (Connections (Atmosphere…

- - - - Some of the absorbed energy radiated back into the space as infrared (heat) radiation
      - Greenhouse gases absorb the longer wavelength radiation + reflect heat back towards E
      - Without this the E's temp. would be 33 degrees cooler
      - Shortwave frared radiation from sun gasses thru E's atmosphere and is absorbed by the surface
    - - When it is high in the atmosphere, more long wavelength radiation in absorbed = increasing temps
      - C-containing compounds in atmosphere have increased since the Ind. Revolution
      - Scientists have measured atmospheric C for last 40 years only
      - Ealier cons. could be estimated from:
        
        Growth rings in trees
        
        Sir trapped in polar ice cores
        
        Fossil pollen grains
      - Since 1970 AD CO2 has been directly measured at the S Pole + Hawaii + now 20 other locations
    - - In drainage basin, heavy rainfall = increased water in aquifers = water table rises = increased flow of springs until water table reverts to normal levels
      - Burning fossil fuels = increased atmospheric CO2 levels + increased photosyn. = removes excess CO2 from atmosphere + restores equilib.
  - - - Permeable/porous water-bearing rocks
        
        Chalk, sandstone
      - GW extracted by wells + boreholes
      - GW feeds rivers = major contribution to their base flow
      - GW emerges in springs + seepages
      - Upper surface of saturation = water table
        
        Height fluctuates seasonally
        
        Affected by extreme rainfall, drought + abstraction
    - - Sed. rocks form a syncline/basin-like structure
        
        Aquifer confined between permeable + impermeable rock contains GW under artesian pressuere
      - Water will flow to surface under its own pressure thru borehole/well
      - Level water rises = potentiometic surface
        
        Determined by height of water table in areas of recharge
  - - - Driven global industrialisation + urbanisation for last 2 centuries
      - = 87% of global energy consumption
      - Release 10 billion tonnes of CO2 to atmosphere annually
      - 3/4 of anthropogenic CO2 emissions since 1750 are from fossil fuels
      - Today's CO2 levels are higher than they've been for 800,000 years
      - Anthropogenic emissions = less than 10% of natural flux from biosphere + oceans to atmosphere
      - W/o increased absorption of anthropogenic C by oceans + biosphere, today's atmosphere would exceed 500 ppm
    - - Fossil fuel combustion + C transfer from geological store to atmosphere + oceans = main driver of present-day global warming
      - CCS
        
        Carbon capture + storage
        
        Capture + store CO2 released by power plants + ind.
        
        Only piloted at a few coal-fired power stations
        
        CO2 separated from power station emissions
        
        CO2 compressed + transported by pipeline to storage areas
        
        Injected into porous rocks deep underground where it is stored permanently
        
        Effectiveness is limited by economic + geological factors
        
        Large capital costs e.g £1 billion
        
        Large amounts of energy - 20% of power plant's output to separate + compress CO2
        
        Requires storage reservoirs with particular geological conds. e.g. porous rock overlain by impermeable strata
  - - - Feedback = automatic response to changes that disturb a system's equilib.
      - Pos. feedback - initial change = further change
      - Neg feedback - counters sys. change + restores equilib
    - - Pos. Feedback
        
        Increased temps. = increased evap. + atmosphere holds more water
        
        = increased cloud cover + more precip.
        
        Water vapour is greenhouse gas = increased absorption of long-w.l. radiation = further temp. increase
      - Neg. Feedback
        
        Increased vapour = increased cloud cover = more solar radiation reflected into space
        
        = smaller amounts of radiation absorbed by E = global temps. fall
      - Drainage basins
        
        LT = inputs + outputs in equilib.
        
        Precip. balanced by evapotransp. + runoff
        
        ST = balance varies yearly
        
        Neg. Feedback
        
        Above av. precip. =
        
        Increased river flow + evap.
        
        Excess water recharges aquifers
        
        Pos. Feedback
        
        Droughts = lower precip. =
        
        Reduces runoff + evapotransp.
        
        Water table falls = springs + seepages dry up = conserves GW stores
      - Trees - Neg. Feedback
        
        Droughts = shallow-rooted trees are stressed
        
        e.g. silver birch
        
        Water lost in transp. is not replaced bt uptake from soil
        
        Tree sheds leaves = reduced transp.
        
        This neg. feedback loop restores water balance + ensures tree's survival
    - - Currently in state of disequilib.
      - Human activity - thru burning fossil fuels=
        
        Increased conc. of C02 in atmosphere
        
        Increased acidity of oceans
        
        Increased flux between major stores
      - Negative Feedback
        
        Could restore equilib.
        
        Stimulating photosyn. - C fertilisation
        
        Excess CO2 extracted from atmosphere + stored in biosphere
        
        This would then find its way to LT storage in soil + ocean seds.
        
        = sys. returns to steady state
        
        Is dependent on availability of other requirements for photosyn.
        
        Sunlight
        
        Soil nutrients
        
        Nitrogen
        
        Water
        
        Therefore, although primary production has increased recently, it is not necessarily bcos of increased CO2
      - Positive Feedback
        
        Global warming
        
        Intensifies C cycle
        
        Quickens decomp.
        
        Releases more CO2 to atmosphere = amplifying greenhouse effect
        
        Arctic tundra
        
        Global warming is occurring faster here than any other region
        
        Arctic sea ice + snow cover shrinks = large expanses of land + ice exposed = more sunlight absorbed
        
        = warms the tundra + melting the permafrost
        
        Sig. - tundra stores 1600 GT of organic C in permafrost
- - - - + Cyrosphere
        
        Water Global warming = rising temps + ice melting
        
        Water Melting = sea level rise
        
        Carbon Permafrost melts = methane released back into atmosphere
      - + Oceans
        
        Carbon C sequestering + acidification - less C stores with water sea temps.
        
        Carbon Less C stored in oceans due to rising temp. = more C in atmosphere = further temp. increase positive feedback
      - + Biosphere
        
        Carbon Burning fossil fuels = C in atmosphere + transfers C from fast to slow cycle
        
        Water More evaporation of surface water with increased temps.
        
        Carbon Deforestation+ urbanisation = faster runoff bc there are no plants for interception + to take up water thru their roots
    - - + Atmosphere
        
        Water Global warming = rising temps. + ice mnelting
        
        Water Melting + s.l. rise
        
        Carbon
        
        Pemafrost melts = methane released into atmosphere
      - + Oceans
        
        Water Melting ice = sea level rise
        
        Water Melting ice = more freshwater into the oceans- changes environ. for orgs.
      - + Biosphere
        
        Permafrost melts = more plant growth
        
        Carbon CO2 removed from atmosphere
        
        Water Runoff rates can be decreased bc of plant growth
    - - + Cryosphere
        
        Water melting ice = sea level rise + more freshwater into oceans = changing environ. for orgs.
      - + Atmosphere
        
        Carbon C sequestration + acidification - less C is stored with warmer sea temps. = more C in atmosphere = further temp. increase **positive feedback
      - + Biosphere
        
        Water Sea level rise = more erosion
        
        Less C in water = less erosion via carbonation
        
        Water GW desalinisation
    - - + Cryosphere
        
        Permafrost melts = more plant growth
        
        Carbon CO2 can be removed from atmosphere
        
        Water Runoff rates can be decreased because of plant growht
      - + Atmosphere
        
        Carbon Burning fossil fuels release CO2 into atmosphere, + transfers C from fast cycle to slow cycle
        
        Water More evap. of surface water with increased temps.
        
        Carbon Deforestation + urbanisation = more C in atmosphere as plants can't photosynthesise to reduce C emission
        
        Water Deforestation + urbanisation = faster runoff as there are no plants for interception + to take up the water thru their roots
      - + Oceans
        
        Water Sea level rise = more erosion
        
        Less C stored in water = lesserosion via carbonation
        
        GW desalinisation
  - - - CO2 has greenhouse effect
      - CO2 = vital role in photosyn.
      - Plants are imp. C stores, extract water from soil + transpire it
      - Water is evaporated from oceans to atmosphere, and CO2 is exchanged between the stores
    - - Acidity increases when CO2 exchanges aren't in balance
      - Lower SSTs = CO2 is more soluble in ocean
      - Atmospheric CO2 levels infleunce:
        
        SSTs + thermal expansion of oceans
        
        Ait temps.
        
        Melting of ice sheets + glaciers
        
        Sea level
    - - Water availability influences rates of photosyn., NPP, inputs of organic litter + transp. rates
      - Water storage capacity of soils increases with organic content
      - Temps. + rainfall affect decomp. rates + release of CO2 into atmosphere
    - - Atmospheric CO2 levels determine intensity of greenhouse effect + melting
      - Melting exposes land + sea surfaces = increased radiation absorption = further temp. increase
      - Permafrost melting = organic matter exposes to oxidation + decomp. = CO2 + CH4
      - Temp. change affects runoff, river flow + evap.
- - - - Sig. changes occur in 24-hr period in water cycle
      - Low temps. at night = reduced evap. + transp.
      - Convectional rainfall depends on direct heating of ground surface by Sun = daytime phenomenon
        
        Sig. in tropics where bulk of precip. is convectional
    - - Flows vary both diurnally + seasonally
      - Daytime - C flows from atmosphere to veg.
      - Nigh - CO2 flows from veg. to atmospehre
  - - - UK - evapotransp. is highest in summer + lowest in winter
      - Large losses of precip. to evapotransp. + exhaustion of soil moisture = river flows at lowest in summer
    - - Monthly changes in NPP
      - In mid + high latitudes, photoperiod + temp. drive seasonal changes in NPP
      - Seasonal fluctuations in CO2 are explained by conc. of continental land masses in N hemisphere
  - - - Climate records of last million years = E's climate has been highly unstable
        
        Large fluctuations in global temps. at reg. intervals
        
        Major glacial cycles in past 400,000 years
        
        Cold glacials followed by warmer inter-glacials
        
        Each cycle lasts 10,000 years
        
        Last glacial was 21,000 years ago
    - - = dramatic reduction in CO2 in atmosphere
        
        No clear explanation for why CO2 levels drop during glacials - possibilities:
        
        Changes in ocean circulation during glacials brings nutrients to surface+ stimulates phytoplankton growth
        
        Phyotplankton fix large amounts of C02 before dying+ sinking to deep ocean where C is stored
        
        Lower ocean temps. = CO2 more soluble in surface water
      - = C pol in veg. shrinks as ice sheets advance + occupy large areas of continents
        
        Deserts expand + tundra replaces temperate forests
        
        Much of land surface buried by ice = C stored in soils cannot be exchanged w atmosphere
        
        Tudra beyond ice-limit sequesters huge amounts of C in permafrost
        
        Less veg., lower temps., + lower precip., = NPP + total vol. of C fixed in photosyn. decreases
        
        = overall slowing of C flux + smaller amounts of CO2 returned to atmosphere thru decomp.
    - - = net transfer of water from ocean reservoir to storage in ice sheets, glaciers + permafrost
        
        = 100m global sea level decrease
        
        Ice sheets + glaciers cover 1/3 of continental land mass
        
        Area covered by veg. + water stored biosphere shrinks
        
        Tropics - climate is drier = rainforest replaced by grassland + deserts
        
        Water cycle greatly slowed
        
        Decreased evapotransp, rates bc of reduced exchanges of water between atmosphere, oceans, biosphere + soils
        
        Most freshwater stored as snow
- - - - Ice-albedo feedback
      - Atmospheric CO2
    - - More CO2 was stored in the deep ocean bc of changes in either ocean mixing/biological activity
    - - Cretaceous Period began 142 million years ago + ended 65 million years ago
      - Very warm climate + no ice caps
      - Very high sea levels
    - - Uplift of Himalayan mts. = large source of rock
      - Rock was weathered as mts. raised up
      - Weathering deposited minerals + C compounds in the sea, moving C from the fast cycle to slow cycle
      - This was so sig. that it reduced the C in the atmosphere = global cooling + ice sheets
      - All phytoplankton in ocean died - but didn't decompose as they lacked O2
      - So decay + decomposition were not returning CO2 to the ocean; it was instead buried in black shales
      - This reduced CO2 levels in atmosphere = global cooling
      - Oceans may have O2-starved bc the circulation of the ocean was poor + there were many shallow sea due to high sea levels
  - - - Showed no evidence of cooling/changes in local wate chem
        
        Meant that a glacial event didn't occur during that period
    - - Many vol. gases - rich in CO2 + SO2
      - Thick chalk deposits accumulating in warm seas across S Eng. = white cliffs of Dover
      - Fossils show seas were becoming progressively warmer, followed by a long cooling trend = falling CO2 levels
      - Organic matter locked away in black shales = unable to be recycled to the oceans to sustain new life
      - Fresh vol. supplies of CO2 were being decreased (+ above factors) = LT cooling
    - - 93 million years ago
      - Sudden appearance of dark mudstone with high levels of organic C in deep oceans
        
        Normally organic matter decaps when the org. dies, and the nutrients + C are consumed by other life forms
        
        The preservation of organic matter meant that O2 was largely absent
      - Known as the oceanic anoxic event and the organic-rich muds formed are black shales
      - O2-starvation period lasted 400,000-800,000 years
      - Rise in global sea levels may have caused the lack of O2
        
        Might have triggered an explosion of life in near-surface water
        
        High temps. pf both surface + deep oceans would hav ehad a limited holding capacity for dissolved O2
    - - CO2 consumed by phytoplankton is usually quickly returned to the ocean by decay of phytoplankton/or other animals in food chain above
        
        = ocean-atmosphere balance is maintained
      - In a O2-starved ocean, organic-matter is not recycled + accumulates = black shales
        
        Ocean becomes depleted + is no longer in balance with the atmosphere = global cooling
- - - - Heavy rainfall, intense storms, heat waves
    - - Affects marine species + coral comms.
    - - Rate of temp. rise since Ind. Rev. is very high
    - - Changes in seasons in diff. regions e.g. UK's summer rainfall is decreasing but winter is increasing
      - More intensive heavy rainfall events - esp. of N America
    - - Earlier spring + alter Autumn
      - Changes behaviour in animals e.g. birds changing migration patters
    - - Increased by 19m since 1990
      - Increased in recent decades
    - - Arctic sea ice in decline since 70s
      - Anatarctica sea ice has increased, but at a slower rate
    - - Greenland + Antarctic ice sheets hold most of E'd fresh water are both are shrinking quickly
  - - - Several major cities at risk
      - Many low-lying countries + island nations
  - - - But increase in rainfall also = flooding + waterlogging soils
    - - Glacial melt in Andes supports river flow + water supply for millions during dry season
  - - - Global warming = increased evap. + therefore increased humidity
      - Increased vapour = feedback effect
        
        Increases global temps.
        
        Increased evap.
        
        Increased precip.
      - Increased precip. = increased runoff+ flooding
      - Water vapour = source of energy
        
        Releases latent heat on condensation
        
        = more energy in atmosphere = extreme weather events
      - Global warming = increased melting of glaciers, ice sheets + permafrost
        
        Reduced water storage in cyrosphere
        
        = water transferred to oceans + atmosphere
    - - Depends on rising temps. + geographical differences in rainfall amounts
      - Higher global temps = increased decomp.
        
        Accelerates C transfers from biosphere to atmosphere
      - Climate change in tropics = increased aridity + threatens forests
        
        Forests replaced by grasslands = C stores in tropical biomes deecreases
      - Global warming in high latitudes = boreal forests expand polewards
      - Permafrost melting
        
        Temps. rise above freezing = oxidation + decomp. of vast peat stores
      - Ocean acidification
        
        Via absorption of excess CO2 from atmospehre
        
        Reduces photosyn. by phytoplankton = limited capacity of oceans to store C
      - LT climate change =
        
        Increase in C stored in atmosphere
        
        Decrease in C stored in biosphere
        
        Decrease in C stored in oceans
        
        Movement in + out of atmosphere will vary regionally depending on photosyn., decomp., + resp.
- - - - Reduces/prevents climate change + requires action now
      - e.g. cutting CO2 emission + increasing afforestation
      - Avoids emitting CO2
      - Easy to achieve e.g. carbon sinks
      - Must reduce emissions from newly industrialising countries as they increase emissions per capita
      - LIDCs caanot afford to adapt fo mitigation in richer countrie sis a priority
      - Difficult to get all countries to agree to strategies
    - - To live with a changing climate by altering lifestyles
      - Reduces impacts of climate change
      - e.g. building flood protection against s.l. rise
      - LT strategy
      - Assumes that climate change will be gradual + that there is time to adapt
      - CO2 has a life of 100 years in the atmosphere, so climate change will cont. bc. of increased amount of CO2 already in atmosphere
      - Keeping CO2 levels low is unrealistic bc of increasing emissions from newly industrialising countries - so adaptation may be easier
  - - - Current levels exceed it
    - - Release of large amounts of methane
    - - Reduce E's ability to restore C
      - Deforestation
      - Dieback of northern Boreal foresst
  - - - Amount of scientific evidence on the impacts of warming has almost doubled since 2007
      - Concerns that will increase:
        
        Threats to unique sys.
        
        2 degree temp. rise = huge consequences
        
        Impacts of seas + freshwater sys.
        
        Oceans will become more acidic
        
        Increased flooding + heat-related mortality
      - Migration linked to climate change
      - Poorer countries will suffer more in ST
      - Food Security
        
        After 2050 = increased risk of severe yield impacts
        
        Pop. will reach 9 billion = demadn for food
        
        Fish species will move to warmer waters
        
        In parts of the tropics + Antarctica, catches could decline by 50%
      - Sea Level Rise
        
        Rising faster now than in the prev. 2 milennia
        
        Rise will continue to accelerate even with mitigation bc of inertia in the system
  - - - Both the peat forests are burning
      - On peatlands, fire penetrate 60 cm below ground
      - Peat is almost all C
      - Peat releases *10 the emissions than other tree types
      - Peat is 9m deep = a lot to burn
      - Indonesia is the world's third largest emitter of CO2
      - Strategies
        
        Law enforcement to reduce logging + no. of timber mills
        
        But 60% of logging is illegal
    - - Reducing emissions from deforestation + forest degradation
      - Began 2005
      - Aims to mitigate climate change thru reducing new emissions of greenhouse gases
      - Works in a large no. of countries
      - Recently launched as an education programme
- - - - Can cause net release of C stored in veg. + soils to atmosphere
      - Reduced footsize of terrestrial C pool
        
        Over half of the loss in NPP has bc of loss of agricultural land
      - Loss of 19% C from soil + 81% form veg.
      - Impossible to replace C lost bc area is now urbanised and veg. cannot grow
      - Reduce's capacity of a region's ecosys. to contribute to important biospheric processes - includes terrestrial C cycle
    - - Urban areas are on avg. 0.05 degrees warmer than other land uses = increased evap.
      - Flat surfaces = greater runoff
      - Warmer surfaces + fast evap. = more sudden rain storms bc of:
        
        Less interception store
        
        Less stemfloww
        
        Less infiltration
      - Greater heat absorption + retention
      - Less plant transp. + water evap.
      - Less water penetration
      - 3-10 degrees hotter in the city
    - - Rain gauge data from several sites in the urbanised area
      - Infrared data from geostationary satellites
        
        Allowed scientists to model rainfall characteristics
      - Remote sensing analysis from satellite data
      - Ecosys. modelling + field data to figure out what happened to C stores
  - - - Positive
        
        Urban veg. can absorb C from atmospehre
        
        Cities can temporarily store C in building mats.
        
        Local cooling effects can reduce energy use
      - Negative
        
        Higher energy consumption
        
        More burning fossil fuels from ind.
        
        Mechanisation of agriculture
        
        Transportation of food to cities
        
        Little sequestration from plants + soils
  - - - Impact is most evident in rivers + aquifers
      - Increased water demand = acute shortages - esp. in arid + semi-arid environments
        
        Irrigation
        
        Agriculture
        
        Public supply
      - Overpumping aquifers in coastal regions of Bangladesh = incursions of salt water
        
        = unfit for irrigation + drinking
      - Deforestation + urbanisation =
        
        Reduced evaptransp. + therefore precip.
        
        Increased runoff
        
        Decreased thruflow
        
        Lower water tables
      - Amazonia
        
        Forest trees transfer water to atmosphere by evapotransp. + returned thru precip.
        
        Deforestation = climates dry out + prevents rengereation
    - - World relies on fossil fuels for 87% of primary consumption
      - Exploitation of fossil fuels = billions of tonnes of C removed from geological stores
      - 8 billion tonnes/C/yr transferred to atmosphere by burning fossil fuels
      - Land use change (deforestation) transfer 1 bn tonnes/C/yr to atmosphere
      - 2.5 million tonnes absorbed oceans + biosphere each
      - Phytoplankton absorb over 1/2 from burning fossil fuels
        
        Acidifcation of oceans threatens it as a store + marine life
      - Soil is degraded + eroded by deforestation + agricultural management
      - Wetland stores dry out + are oxidised as they are drained for urban development + cultivation
- - - - Little/no infiltration
      - Minimal water storage capacity to buffer runoff
    - - = high proportion of water from precip. flows quickly into streams + rivers = rapid rise in water level
    - - = increased river flow + flood risks
  - - - If farming replaces grassland, there is little effect
      - C exchanges thru photosyn. are lower than in natural ecosys.
        
        Lack of BD
        
        Growth cycle is compressed into 4-5 months
      - Reduced C soil storage
        
        Exposure of soil organic matter to oxidation
        
        Ploughing
      - Clearance of forest for farming = reduced above- and below-ground biomass
      - Soil erosion - most severe when crops have been lifted
    - - Crop irrigation diverts surface water from rivers + GW to cultivated land
        
        Some is extracted by crops + released via transp.
        
        Most lost to evap. + soil drainage
      - Reduced interception, evap. + transp. from elaf surfaces
      - Ploughing = increased evap. + soil moisture loss + infiltration
      - Downslope furrows = drainage channels = accelerated runoff + soil erosion
      - Artificial underdrainage = increased rate of water transfer to streams + rivers
      - Soil compaction = increased runoff
        
        = peak flows in streams + rivers are higher than natural ecosystems
  - - - Higher interception rates
        
        Esp .for conifers - needle-like structure, evergreen habit + high density of planting
      - Increased evap.
        
        Large amount of evap. loss
      - Reduced runoff + stream discharge
        
        High interception, evap. + water absorption by tree roots = drainage basin hydrology altered
        
        Streams drainage plantations have long lag times, low peak flows + low total discharge
      - Increased transp.
      - Clear felling to harvest timber = sudden but temp. changes to local water cycle
        
        Increased runoff
        
        Reduces evapotransp.
        
        Increases stream discharge
    - - Increases C stores
      - Mature trees contain *10 more C than grassland in UK
      - Trees remove CO2 from atmosphere + sequester it for hundreds of years
        
        Most in stored in the trunk/stem
      - Forest trees only become an active C sink for first 100 years
        
        Amount of C captured is then balanced by inputs of litter, resp. + decomposers
        
        Active C sinks absorb more C than they release
        
        = forestry plantations have a rotation period of 80-100 years before being felled + replanted
- - - - Pop. growth
      - Economic development
      - Urbanisation
    - - Lost 70% of wetlands in 20th cent.
      - Restoration programmes show wetladns can store 3.25 tonnes/C/ha/yr
      - 112,000 ha targeted for restoration
        
        Will sequester 364,000 tonnes/C/yr
    - - Wetalnds on floodplains can be reconnected to rivers by removal of flood embankments + controlled flooding
      - Coastal reclamation areas restored by breaching sea defences
      - Dirverting/blocking drainage ditches + installing sluice gates = water levels maintained t artificially high levels
  - - - Loggers, farmers + miners
    - - Incentivises developing countries to conserve their rainforests by placing a monetary value on forest conservation
  - - - Overcultivation
      - Overgrazing
      - Excessive intensification
    - - = large amounts of CH4 from uncontrolled decomp. of manure
    - - Zero tilage - growing crops w/o ploughing soil
        
        Conserves soil's organic content
        
        Reduces oxidation
        
        Reduces risk of erosion by wind
      - Polyculture - growing annual crops interspersed w trees
        
        Trees = year-round cover frome erosion
      - Crop residues - leaving residues on field after harvest
        
        = ground cover to protect from erosion + drying out
      - Avoid heavy machinery
        
        = reduces compaction + runoff
      - Contour ploughing + terracing
        
        = reduced runoff + erosion
      - New rice strains that grow in drier conds.
        
        = less CH4 produced
    - - Improving quality of animal feed
        
        = reduces enteric fermentation = less feed converted to CH4
      - Mixing methane inhibitors w. livestock feed
    - - Controlling how manure decomposes to reduce CH4 emissions
      - Storing manure in anaerobic containers + capturing CH4 as a source of renewable energy
  - - - To protect + restore forests
      - C credits + direct funding
    - - Received support from
        
        UN, WB, World Wildlife Fund + German Development Bank
      - Amazon Regional Protected Areas programmes covers 10% of Amazon basin
        
        Areas are strictly protected
        
        Benefits
        
        Stablised regional water cycle
        
        Offsets 430 m tonnes/C/year
        
        Supports indigenous forest communities
        
        Promotes ecotourism
        
        Protects genetic bank provided by thousands of plant species
  - - - 70% of water withdrawals
      - 90% of consumption
    - - Evap. + seepage via inefficient water management
      - Improved management techniques =
        
        Mulching
        
        Zero soil disturbance
        
        Drip irrigation
    - - From ind, agriculture, + urban population
      - Feasible but little used outside of developed world
  - - - Accommodates the conflicting demands of diff. users
    - - Run-off
        
        Reforestation programmes in upland catchments
        
        Reducing artificial drainage
        
        Extending permeable surfaces
      - Surface water storage
        
        Conserving + restoring wetlands
        
        Temp. storage on floodplains
      - Groundwater levels
        
        Limiting abstraction
        
        Artificial recharge - water injected into aquifers thru boreholes