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GEOGRAPHY PAPER 1 (THE CHALLENGE OF NATURAL HAZARDS (WEATHER HAZARDS (UK…

- - - - Crust is divided into slabs called tectonic plates (they float on the mantle)plates are made of two types of crust-
        
        CONTINENTAL-thicker and less dense
        
        OCEANIC-thinner and more dense
      - The plates are moving because of convection currents in the mantle.
      - The outer layer of earth is the crust.
      - The places where plates meet are called plate margins or plate boundaries.
      - Around core is mantle, semi-molten rock that moves very slowly (convection currents)
      - core of Earth is a ball of solid(inner) and liquid (outer) iron and nickel.
    - - constructive margins
        
        where two plates are moving away from each other
        
        EG- at the mid-atlantic ridge.Magma rises from mantle to fill the gap and cools creating new crust.
      - conservative margins
        
        where two plates are moving sideways past each other,or are moving in the same direction but at different speeds.
        
        EG-along west coast of USA.Crust isn't created or destroyed.
      - Destructive margins
        
        where an oceanic plate meets a continental plate,denser oceanic plate is forced down into the mantle and destroyed.
        
        This often creates volcanoes and ocean trenches.
        
        Where two plates are moving towards each other,e.g along west coast of south america
        
        where two continental plates meet,the plates collide and the ground is folded and forced upwards to create mountain ranges
    - - Occur at all three types of plate margin
        
        caused by the tension that builds up at all three types of plate margin
        
        conservative margins-tension builds up when plates that are grinding past each other get stuck
        
        1)Plates eventually jerk past each other,sending out shock waves (vibrations)these vibrations are the earthquake.
        
        Constructive margins-tension builds along cracks within the plates as they move away from eachother.
        
        2)shock waves spread out from the focus (the point in the earth where the earthquake starts)Near the focus the waves are stronger and cause more damage.
        
        Destructive margins-tension builds up when one plate gets stuck as it's moving down past the other into the mantle
        
        The epicentre is the point on the Earth's surface straight above the focus.
        
        Earthquakes are measured using the moment magnitude scale:
        
        The moment magnitude scale is logarithmic-so a magnitude 7 earthquake is ten times as powerful than a magnitude 6 earthquake.
        
        magnitude 6 and below earthquakes only normally cause slight damage ,although they can be worse in built up areas.
        
        moment magnitude scale measures the amount of energy released by an earthquake (called the magnitude)
        
        Magnitude 7 and above can cause major damage and deaths.
      - Effects and responses
        
        primary effects
        
        people injured or killed by collapsed buildings and falling debris.
        
        roads,railways,ports and airports are damaged.
        
        buildings and bridges collapse and homes destroyed
        
        electricity cables, gas and water pipes and communication networks damaged,cutting off supplies.
        
        secondary effects
        
        leaking gas can be ignited starting fires
        
        people are left homeless and could die
        
        can trigger landslides and tsunamis which destroy more buildings and cause more injuries and deaths.
        
        shortage of clean water and lack of proper sanitation-easy for disease to spread
        
        blocked or destroyed roads-aid cannot get through and trade is difficult
        
        businesses are damaged or destroyed,causing unemployment and lost income.Tourism can decline
        
        Repairs and reconstruction can be very expensive so can weaken a country's economy.
        
        Immediate responses
        
        rescue people trapped by collapsed buildings and treat the injured.
        
        recover dead bodies to prevent disease spread
        
        put out fires
        
        set up temporary shelters for people whose homes have been damaged or destroyed
        
        provide temporary supplies of water,food,electricity,gas and communication systems.
        
        foreign govts or charities may send aid workers,supplies,equipment or financial donations to areas affected.
        
        tech companies may set up disaster response tools allowing damage to be recorded and people to confirm their safety.
        
        long-term responses
        
        reconnect broken electricit water and gas and communication connections.
        
        if necessary,improve building regulations so that buildings are more resistant to damage from earthquakes.
        
        repair or rebuild damaged buildings roads railways and bridges.
        
        set up initiatives to help economic recovery-eg promoting tourism.
        
        rehouse people who lost homes
  - - - tropical storms develop when sea temp is 27 degrees or higher and when the difference in wind speed between higher and lower parts of the atmosphere is low.
      - warm moist air rises and condensation occurs.Releases huge amounts of energy,which makes the storms powerful .The rising air creates an area of low pressure which increases surface winds
      - tropical storms move towards the west because of easterly winds near equator
      - earth's rotation deflects the paths of the winds which causes the storms to spin.
      - storm gets stronger due to energy from warm water so wind speeds increase.They lose strength when they move over land or cooler water because the energy supply from warm water is cut off.
      - most tropical storms occur between 5 and 30 degrees north and south of equator .Majority of them occur in northern hemisphere in late summer and autumn when sea temps are highest.
    - - tropical storms are circular in shape,hundreds of kilometres wide and usually last 7-14 days.
      - they spin anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in southern hemisphere.
      - the centre of the storm is called the eye-it is up to 50km across and is caused by descending air.There's very low pressure,light winds,no clouds,no rain and a high temp in the eye.
      - the eye is surrounded by the eyewall where there's spiralling rising air,very strong winds (around 160km per hour) storm clouds,torrential rain and a low temp.
      - towards the edges of the storm the wind speed falls,the clouds become smaller and more scattered ,the rain becomes less intense and temp increases.
    - - primary
        
        3)people drown or they're injured by debris.
        
        4)roads,railways,ports and airports are damaged.
        
        2)rivers and coastal areas flood
        
        5)electricity cables are damaged ,cutting off supplies.
        
        1)buildings and bridges are destroyed
        
        6)sewage overflows due to flooding.The sewage often contaminates water supplies.
      - secondary
        
        2)shortage of clean water and lack of proper sanitation-makes it easier for diseases to spread.
        
        3)roads are blocked or destroyed so aid can't get through
        
        1)people are left homeless which can cause distress poverty and ill health or death due to lack of shelter.
        
        4)businesses are damaged or destroyed causing unemployment
        
        5)there can be shortages of food if crops are damaged,livestock are killed or supply lines blocked.
      - which trigger immediate and long-term responses
        
        immediate
        
        4)provide temporary supplies of water food etc
        
        5)recover any dead bodies to prevent spread of disease
        
        3)set up temp shelters for people whose homes have been flooded or damaged
        
        6)foreign govts or NGOs may send aid workers,supplies,equipment or financial donations to the area
        
        2)rescue people who have been cut off by flooding and treat injured people
        
        7)tech companies may set up disaster response tools allowing damage to be recorded people to confirms their safety and alert areas at risk from the storm
        
        1)evacuate people before the storm arrives
        
        long-term
        
        3)repair and improve flood defence systems
        
        4)improve forecasting techniques to give people more warning in the future
        
        5)provide aid,grants or subsidies to residents to repair and strengthen homes
        
        6)promote economic recovery in the area and encourage people to return to the area
        
        7)improve building regulations so more buildings withstand hurricanes or change planning rules so home can't be built in the most risky areas.
        
        2)repair or replace damaged infrastructure
        
        1)repair homes or rehouse people who have been displaced due to damaged buildings
    - - hurricane Katrina struck Mississippi and Louisiana USA in august 2005
        
        primary effects
        
        large areas were flooded,including 80% of new orleans
        
        3 million people left without electricity
        
        300 000 houses were destroyed
        
        some bridges collapsed
        
        more than 1800 people killed
        
        coastal habitats were damaged
        
        secondary effects
        
        230 000 jobs lost from damaged businesses
        
        water supplies polluted with sewage and chemicals
        
        hundreds of thousands of people were made homeless
        
        total cost of damage to land was estimated at $150 billion
        
        immediate responses
        
        Mississippi and Louisiana declared states of emergency -they set up control centres and emergency shelters and stockpiled supplies.
        
        the coastguards,police,fire service and army rescued over 50 000 people
        
        70-80% of new Orleans residents were evacuated before the hurricane reached land
        
        charities collected donations and provided aid including millions of hot meals.
        
        longer term responses
        
        the US army recommended that buildings are rebuilt on stilts or not rebuilt at all in very low-lying areas
        
        repaired and improved flood defences for new Orleans costing 14.5 billion dollars were completed in 2013
        
        the US government provided over 16 billion dollars for the rebuilding of homes,and provided funds to repair other essential infrastructure
    - - planning
        
        emergency services can train to prepare for disasters .This reduces number of deaths.
        
        govts can plan evacuation routes to get people away from storms quickly.
        
        future developments can be planned to avoid the areas most at risk
      - protection
        
        flood defences can be built along rivers and coasts
        
        all of these reduce the number of buildings destroyed so fewer people will be killed,injured,made homeless and made unemployed.
        
        buildings can be designed to withstand tropical storms.Buildings can be put on stilts so they're safe from floodwater
      - prediction
        
        scientists use data from things like radar ,satellites and aircraft to monitor storms.computer models are then used to calculate a predicted path for a storm.
        
        predicting where and when a tropical storm is going to happen gives people time to evacuate and protect their homes and businesses.
    - - wind
      - snow and ice
      - rain
      - thunderstorms
      - heatwaves
      - hailstorms
      - drought
      - weather in the UK is becoming more extreme
        
        it is raining more.More rainfall records have been broken in 2010-2014 than in any decade on record,even after only half a decade.2013 was one of the wettest years on record and December 2013 was the wettest month ever recorded
        
        major flooding occurs often-eg there was major flooding caused by storms and high rainfall in the somerset levels during the winter of 2013-2014,in west wales in 2012,in Cumbria in 2005,2009 and 2015-2016
        
        temps have become more extreme in recent years December 2010 was the coldest for over 100 years,with severe snow and ice causing several deaths,and school and road closures.But just four months later,April 2011 was the warmest april on record
      - extreme weather uk example
        
        long period of heavy snow and very cold weather across uk
        
        cold air from northern Europe and Siberia caused two long periods of very cold weather with a brief thaw in between
        
        25th nov to 26 December 2010
        
        social impacts
        
        several people died from hypothermia or accidents on icy roads
        
        lots of water pipes froze and burst.Once thawed the pipes started to leak.40 000 homes and businesses left without water
        
        schools closed on several occasions
        
        economic impacts
        
        transport networks severely disrupted some motorways shut.Some drivers trapped in their cars for over 15 hours.Trains and flights cancelled
        
        people unable to get to work affecting uk's economy
        
        201 sales put down due to people put off Christmas shopping by weather
        
        overall economic impact was 1.6 billion pounds
        
        environmental impacts
        
        the frost damaged crops especially sugar beet
        
        use of gas and electricity more than double a normal December increasing co2 emmisions
        
        snow covered almost all of uk to a depth of over 50 com in some locations
        
        management strategies can reduce the risk from weather hazards
        
        protection-individuals and local authorities prepared for extreme weather before it happened.For example councils stock up on gritters and salt supplies to keep roads safe and open in cold weather.
        
        planning-emergency services and local councils planned how to deal with extreme weather events in advance e.g-made plans to close schools when it would be too dangerous for people to get to them.
        
        prediction-warning systems gave people time to prepare for extreme weather.Eg- met office first warned about cold weather at start of november
  - - - a natural disaster is a natural hazard that has actually happened
      - Extreme events which do not pose any threat to human activity are not counted as hazards-eg a drought in an uninhabited desert.
    - - Geological hazards
        
        caused by land and tectonic processes.Examples include volcanoes and earthquakes.
      - Meteorological hazards
        
        caused by weather and climate.Examples include tropical storms and extreme weather such as floods
    - - capacity to cope
        
        1)The better a population can cope with an extreme event,the lower the threat
        
        eg- HICS are better able to cope with flooding because they can afford to build flood defences,evacuate people in a disaster and repair damage after.
      - Nature of natural hazards
        
        Frequency-some natural hazards occur more often than others,increasing the hazard risk.
        
        Magnitude-more severe natural hazards cause greater effects.Eg- a magnitude 9.0 earthquake struck japan in 2011 and killed over 15,000 people.Whereas a 6.3 magnitude earthquake struck L'Aquila,Italy and around 300 people died.
        
        Type-the hazard risk from some hazards is greater than others.EG-tropical storms can be predicted and monitored giving people time to evacuate .But earthquakes happen very suddenly,with no warning,so its harder to protect people.
      - Vulnerability
        
        the more people that are in areas exposed to natural hazards,the greater the probability they will be affected by a natural hazard-so hazard risk is higher
        
        Eg-an area with high population density on a flood plain (like Bangladesh) is very vulnerable to flooding caused by extreme weather, and a city at the base of a volcano(like naples in Italy) is very vulnerable to volcanic eruptions
  - - - oceans will stay 27 degrees or higher for more of the year-so number of tropical storms a year could increase
      - higher temps also mean tropical storms will be stronger meaning they could cause more damage.
      - global temps are expected to rise as a result of climate change.This means that more of the world's oceans could be above 27 degrees,so more places in the world may experience tropical storms.
    - - during the quaternary global temp has shifted between cold glacial periods that last for around 100,000 years,and warmer interglacial periods that last for 10 000 years
      - the last glacial period ended around 15 000 years ago.Since then the climate has been warming
      - in the period before the quaternary the earth's climate was warmer and quite stable.Then things changed a lot.
      - global warming is the term used to describe the sharp rise in global temps over the last century.It is a type of climate change.
      - the quaternary period is the most recent geological time period,spanning from about 2.6 million years ago to the present day.
    - - tree rings
        
        scientists take cores and count the rings to find the age of a tree.The thickness of each ring shows what the climate was like
        
        tree rings are a reliable source of evidence of climate change for the past 10 000 years.
        
        as a tree grows it forms a new ring each year-the tree rings are thicker in warm and wet conditions
      - Pollen Analysis
        
        Scientists can identify and date the preserved pollen to show which species were living at that living.
        
        Scientists know the conditions that plants live in now so preserved pollen from similar plants shows climate conditions where similar.
        
        Pollen from plants gets preserved in sediment.
      - ice and sediment cores
        
        by analysing the gases trapped in the layers of ice,they can tell what the temperature was each year.
        
        one core from Antarctica shows the temp changes over the last 400 000 years
        
        scientists drill into ice sheets to get long cores of ice
        
        the remains of organisms found in cores taken from ocean sediments can also be analysed.These can extend the temp record back at least 5 million years.
        
        ice sheets are made up of layers of ice.
      - Temperate Records
        
        Since the 1850s global temperatures have been measured accurately using thermometers. This gives a reliable but short term record of temperatures.
        
        Historical records can extend record of climate change a bit further back.
- - - - waves are formed by the wind blowing over the sea. friction with the surface of the water causes ripples to form and these develop into waves. The distance the wind blows across the water is called the fetch. The longer the fetch the more powerful the wave.
        
        construct and destructive waves.
        
        constructive waves; these are low waves that surge up the beach and 'spill' with a powerful swash. They carry and deposit large amount of sand and pebbles and contruct the beach making it more extensive. These waves are formed by strong storms often hundreds of kilometres away.
        
        constructive waves have a strong swash and this pushes sand and pebbles up the beach.
        
        destructive waves These are formed by local storms close to the coast, and they can 'destroy' the beach-hence their name. They are closely spaced and often interfere with each other producing a chaotic swirling mass of water. they become high and steep before plunging down on to the beach.
        
        destructive waves have a week swash and a strong backwash.
      - waves can also be caused by major earthquakes, these are called tsunamis.
    - - weathering is the breakdown of rocks where they are , erosion is when the rocks are broken down and carried away by something
        
        mechanical weathering this is the breakdown of rock without changing its chemical composition. Theres one main type of mechanical wheathering this is freeze thaw
        
        chemical weathering this is the breakdown of rock by changing its chemical composition.
  - - - Glacial troughs are with flat bottoms. They start off as a V-shaped river valley but change to a U-shape as the glacier erodes the sides and bottom, making it deep and wider. (eg. Snowdonia)
      - Ribbon lakes are long, thin lakes that form after a glacier retreats. They form in hollows where softer rock was eroded more than the surrounding hard rock.
      - Hanging valleys are valleys formed by smaller glaciers that flow into the main glacier. The glacier trough is eroded much more deeply by the larger glacier , so when the glaciers melt the valleys are left at a higher level.
      - Corries begin as hollows containing a small glacier. As the ice moves by rotational slip, it erodes the hollow into a steep-sided, armchair shape with a lip at the bottom end. When the ice melts it can lave a small circular lake called a tarn.
      - Truncated spurs are cliff-like edges on the valley side formed when ridges of land (spurs) that stick out into the main valley are cut off as the glacier moves past.
      - An arête is a narrow, steep-sided ridge formed when 2 glaciers flow in parallel valleys. The glaciers erode the sides of the valleys, which sharpens the ridge between them giving it a jagged profil.
      - A pyramidal peak is a pointed mountain peak with at least three sides. It's formed when three or more back-to-back glaciers erode a mountain. (eg. Snowdon, Wales)
    - - Abrasion- is where its of rock in the ice grind against the rock below the glacier, wearing it away.
      - Plucking- occurs when meltwater at the base, back or sides of a glacier freezes onto the rock. As the glacier moves forward it pulls pieces of rock out.
    - - Medial moraine is a long ridge of material deposited along the centre of a valley floor.
      - Terminal moraine builds up at the snout of the glacier, marking the furthest point reached by the ice.
      - Ground moraine is eroded material that was dragged along the base of the glacier and is deposited over a wide area on the valley floor as the ice melts.
      - Lateral moraine is a long mound of material deposited where the side of the glacier was. its formed by material eroded from the valley walls and carried along on the ice surface at the sides of the glacier.
    - - Erratics Erratics are rocks that have been picked up by glacier, carried along and dropped in an area that has a completely different rock type. Erratic rocks often look out of place eg. a large boulder on its own.
      - Drumlins Drumlins are elongated hills of glacial deposits- the largest ones can be over 1000m long, 500m wide and 50m high. They're round, blunt and steep at the upstream end, and tapered, pointed and gently slopingat the downstream end.
    - - Tourism attracts 1000s of visitors, it provides 16000 unemployed people jobs.
    - - Tourism
        
        Conflicts caused by tourism. Tourists can damage stone walls, scare sheep and trample on nature.
      - Quarrying
        
        Destructon of wildlife and congestion due to big trucks that transport quarrying stone.
      - Farming
        
        Conflicts caused by farming. grazing sheep remove vegetation from landscape. Many farmers do not want tourists eroding there land away.
      - Forestry
        
        harvesting trees means chopping forests down, scares off wildlife and damages habitats.
  - - - the relief of an area is determined mainly by the variety of rock in the UK. For example tough resistant rocks such as granite and slate form some of the UK's most dramatic mountains such as Arran in Scotland. Weaker rocks such as clay and limestone often form low lying plains and gently rolling landscapes such as the Cotswold hills
- - - - Mineral extraction
      - Energy development
      - Population pressure
      - Commercial farming
      - Commercial logging
      - Subsistence farming
      - Environmental impacts- with no trees to hold the soil together, heavy rain washes away the soil. This can lead to landslides and flooding. without a tree canopy to intercept rainfall and tree roots to absorb it, more water reaches the soil. This reduces soil fertility as nutrients in the soil are washed away, out of reach from plants. Trees remove CO2 from the atmosphere.
      - Economic impacts- Logging, farming and mining create jobs. A lot of money is also being made from selling timber, mining and commercial farming.
    - - Selective logging
      - Replanting
      - Eco-tourism
      - Education
      - Conservation
      - Reducing Dept
      - International Hardwood Agreements
  - - - Temperate Deciduous Forest- found mainly in the mid latitudes where there are 4 distinct seasons. summers are warm, winters are relatively mild and there is rainfall all year.
      - Grassland- there are two types of grassland. savannah grassland are found between the tropics. there are distinct dry and wet seasons, although rainfall is still relatively low. temperate grasslands are found at higher latitudes where there is more variation in temperature and less rainfall.
      - Tundra- found at high latitudes in northern Europe, Alaska and northern Canada. Winters are very cold, summers are brief and there is little rainfall. there are hardly any trees, vegetation includes mosses, grasses and low shrubs. there is a layer of permanently frozen ground called permafrost.
      - Polar- found around the north and south poles. they are very cold icy ands dry. not much grows at all and is usually dark.
      - Hot Deserts- found between 15 and 35 degrees south and north of the equator where there is little rainfall. its very hot during the day and very cold at night. shrubs and cacti are sparsely distributed in the sandy soil.
      - Tropical Rainforests- found around the equator, between the tropics, where its hot and wet all year round. this is an area of lush forest with dense canopies of vegetation forming distict layers.
    - - a producer is an organism that uses sunlight energy to produce food.
        
        a decomposer is an organism that gets its energy by breaking down dead materials. eg, dead producers, dead consumers, or fallen leaves. Bacteria and fungi are decomposers.
        
        a consumer is an organism that gets its energy by eating other organisms- it eats it eats producers or other consumers.
  - - - Plants adaptations- plant roots are either extremely long to reach very deep water supplies, or spread out very wide near the surface to catch as much water as possible when it rains.
        Many plants are succulents. They have large, fleshy stems for storing and thick waxy skin to reduce water loss.
    - - Animal adaptations-being nocturnal means animals can stay cool during the day. also lizards and snakes are able to tolerate high body temp. some bigger animals store large amounts of fat which they can break down into water when needed. some animals get all the water they need from what they eat. Adaptations to cope with sand are also common. for example camels have long eyelashes.
    - - Reasons for desertification
        
        Global temperatures increasing meaning more water evaporates from the land and soil. This makes land drier
        
        Reduce in rainfall means less water is available for plant growth, so plants die, roots of plants hold soil together, without plants soil is easily eroded.
        
        Removal of fuel wood
        
        Overgrazing
        
        Over-cultivation
        
        Population Growth
      - How to reduce the risk
        
        Water management- growing crops that don't need much water
        
        Tree planting- trees can be planted that act as windbreaks to protect soil from wind erosion. Trees can also stabilise the sand to prevent it eroding away.
        
        Soil management- leaving areas of land to rest in between grazing or planting helps them to recover their nutrients.
        
        Appropriate technology- using cheap, sustainable and easily available materials that are easy for local people to obtain. eg. sand fences, solar cookers.
    - - Oil and gas
      - Solar energy
      - Mineral Resources
      - Farming
      - Tourism