Public Spaces
Bombay
Calcutta
Madras
Design Considerations
Seperation
Integration
Black Towns
White Towns
Health
Presitge
Defence
Situated in northeast India on the east bank of the Hooghly River
Prior to the British arrival in 1690, the area had been occupied by indigenous trading castes for well over two centuries.
The East India Company (EIC) then secured permission to establish a mercantile settlement in the Sutanati village.
Sutanati later developed and merged with nearby developing villages Gobindapur and Kalikata to create Calcutta
Calcutta's location in the lower reaches of the river meant that larger ships were able to reach it which was beneficial for trade.
Architecture was used as a means to acquire prestige amongst Europeans as land and materials were very expensive. Large grand European style buildings with high ceilings and pillars were common for elite Europeans who wanted to demonstrate their wealth.
Governor General Wellesely who arrived in Calcutta in 1978 wanted to city to expand its influence beyond just trade and become an extension of the Empire. Part of achieving this meant bringing neoclassical architecture to the city which had order, symmetry and magnificence. He also wanted to transform the tight-knit neighbourhoods in the Black Towns into open, fluid street corridors which would be excellent for commerce but destructive to the local community.
Large garden estates were highly sought after in the White Towns as these areas often provided them with some solitude, but were still relatively close to the centre.
Homes in the White Towns had high ceilings to keep rooms cool through the hot summers and also because it was thought if there was more space, then miasma was reduced. The homes layout were also quite open plan for this same reason
Streets were also designed with health in mind as they were wide and open plan
It was believed that miasma (bad air) spread disease. As diseases were most common in the Black Towns, which were overcrowded with narrow buildings and low ceilings, it was believed that these conditions made miasma worse.
Some Indians lived in White Towns but this was exclusive to Indians who worked for whites such as domestic workers.
Bombay was located on the Konkan Coast of West India.
It was acquired by the British in 1661, part of Catherin of Braganza's dory when marrying Charles II King of England
The EIC were handed control of the islands in 1667.
Originally made up of 7 islands, the EIC began a reclamation project, filled with salt marshes to create one town during late 18th century
Bombay played a big role in the control of the British trade in India and other colonies of the Eastern Hemisphere
Natural or planned development?
Most recent map of Madras shows less of a grid design in a uniformed layout suggesting the town developed with no strict plan (like Mitter argued)
Bombay required more intensive planning due to the need to reclaim land, through salt marshes. This enabled a contiguous development.
Calcutta developed and grew from a small collection of villages, suggesting it was not stringently planned from the outset
The Fortifications were important when the company had little power on arrival in India and also became more important when the EIC were getting more drawn into political issues in India.
Kosambi and Bush:White Towns had fortifications around their factories, Madras and Bombay had a wall whereas Calcutta had a ditch. This highlights the difference of fortifications between the three main port towns
Sheppard: cites Bombay's fortifications as 'a recurrent cycle of events' so it would become apparent that part of the islands were defenceless so those in charge needed to develop a new method of fortification, so fortification was an ever evolving process. This suggests that like Mitter, forts and White Towns were not stringently planned but ever developing.
Chattopadhyay:Claims his simplification would not give justice to the complexities of these port-town communities. The political, social and economic factors often undermined the aesthetic split, and there was a permeation of people culture between the two
Chattopadhay:Challanges the idea of 'dual cities' by stating that the colonial context meant that there could not be a complete split between Black and White Towns and there were in fact 'blurred boundaries'.
Hassan: described Calcutta as the nucleus of British expansion in India.
Hassan:Some influential Indian merchants especially those associated with the English commercial activities, resided within white towns. For example, Baboo Jagmohan opened an office in a White Town in which he accommodated the young European civilians when they first arrived in India.
Archer:A neoclassical facade on a dwelling made a claim within the Indian community about influence and prestige while also appealing to the English visitors as it showed an acceptance of Western standards
Marshall:The British and Indians worked together in business and often became business partners. However, the Indian business partners, known as banians, were seen more as servants so inferior to the British, suggesting a clear racial divide remained and integration was more for functional purposes.
Mitter:Argues that Defence was 'undoubtedly of paramount importance' in the early development of port towns. He argues that the factories needed to be protected from local powers such as the Mughal or Nawab as well as other European powers.
Mitter: argues that Nilsson took the early map of Madras 1688 too literally. Mitter stressed the schematic nature of the 'diagram', suggesting that it was not created to be a specific map of the town but rather a simplistic diagram
Mitter:Argues that many of the forts had to be rebuilt in the 18th century due to being attacked, eg after the invasion of Madras in the 1740s
Nilsson:European powers in India designed very structured towns with a grid design in a uniformed layout
Defensive structures included: wide streets for clear view of shooting invaders and walls/ditches for protection from invaders
Kosambi and Bush: Argue that esplanades were a method of defence. this was because they offered separation from Indian people as well providing defence.
In an image of Fort St George in Madras from 1754, you can clearly see the high walls to protect the factory and impede the invaders. The fort is by the sea so would have enabled an easy escape if it was attacked or invaded. It is also clear that there is an open space, around the fort, providing an example of an esplanade described below
One of the main port towns of India, Madras was situated on the Coromandel Coast of SE India.
EIC bought the land in 1639
The main centre-point of Madras would be Fort St George which was initially built in 1640
Further defence structers were complete by 1659 - the fort was built to protect the port from 'inland enemies' such as Mughal generals and religious Nawabs, as well as other European powers using India for their own economic gain.
Madras is strategically situated next to the Bay of Bengal, and although it is on the coast and has good trade links to the Elambore river and the Cooum river, it was an unlikely spot for a port due to its shallow bay and strong tides. The extremely shallow bay meant that ships would have to dock a mile or more out and then smaller boats would transport the goods to and from the ship.
Disease epidemics of Effluvia, Malaria and Cholera which erupted in the chaos of the Black Towns, soon spread across all areas of the cities. It would be this that triggered European officials' efforts to begin town planning, with health and sanitary conditions in mind.
With Miasma being a main fear in these towns, there were steps taken in order to avoid disease
Chattopadhyay: notes that changes in architecture allowed for the flow of 'fresh and clean' air, with lower floors being used for storage and tall ceilings for cool rooms. These architectural feats were in an attempt to mark a distinct break from Black Towns which were cramped with low ceilings and crowded facades.
Gupta: Notes that in Calcutta, the fear of illness became a concern so that the town planners would structure urban towns in accordance to certain criteria. They cleaned drains, roads and water courses meaning roads had to be wider and more spacious.
Forbidding the irregularities of buildings meant that Europeans couldn't build a house which may endanger the health of its surrounding neighborhood
The formation of these separate towns were not standardised throughout each city, e.g. in Bombay, with the island formation there was a lack of formal divisions.
The physical divisions in Madras and Calcutta were far more notable with the use of walls.
Crowded, narrow streets with low ceilings
Seen as areas of disease and decay by Europeans so they wished to keep themselves as far as way as possible.
Formation far less grid like than the White Towns with less space and more danger of 'miasma'.
Poor sanitation and low-set residential buildings meant that Black Towns didn't follow the European standards of a healthy environment
Chattopadhyay: The attitudes which permeated from Britain in the 18th century was a large dividing force in the formation of these boundaries. The desire for strict boundaries was due to the 18th century obsession with classification, division and separation.
Use of walls and ditches to separate towns signified more than a worry of illness, but also a feeling of otherness which britain felt should they be at arms length to protect themselves