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Exploitation of micro-organisms (Genetic engineering (Vaccines (1st…

- - - - Mercury
        
        Exists in atmosphere as Hg vapour
        
        In aquatic environments it is oxidised to Hg2+
        
        Adosprbs to particulate matter
        
        metabolism by micro-organisms results in methylation Hg-CH3
        
        It an enter the human body and bind to sulfhydroyl groups ( mainly found on amino acid residues such as Cytesine)
        
        This allows a wide destribution in the human body
        
        Several species of bactaeri have the ability to enzymatically biotransform methyl mercury to form normal elemental mercury
        
        An elaboration is the ability of some bacteria species to use sidophores in order to acquire Iron from outside environment
    - - Why is it a problem?
        
        40 billion tonnes of plastic are produced every year
        
        these remain unaltered in landfill sites
        
        Microplastics is a significant problem with marine life
        
        Japanese researchers have discovered that certain bacteria that live on plastic waste. Can be used to break down the plastic in landfill sites to speed up the process of decomposition
    - - Hydrocarbons are a rich source of organic nutrients for bacteria .
      - This creates good conditions for the growth of oil oxidant bacteria
    - - Why is it a problem?
        
        2 million tonnes are produced. This can cause very bad contamination.
      - Some bacteria have the ability to break down pesticides so they are removed faster from soil and in which case the bacteria are saved
- - - - Secreted by bacteria that kills or inhibits growth of organisms
      - "Dosage makes the poison"
    - - Botulinum Toxin
        
        Produced by Clostridium Botulinum
        
        Normally inhabits the soil and water
        
        Tends to contaminate food before harvest or slaughter.
        
        Sever food poising caused by consumption
        
        Attacks the neural synapses
        
        Causes hypotonia (muscle relaxation)
        
        Paralysis
        
        Respiratory failure
        
        Application
        
        Cosmetic industry
        
        Used for botox
        
        Medical industry
        
        Used for patients suffering from dystonia (muscle spasms)
      - Heamolytic streptococcal strains
        
        How is it used and why?
        
        Mammilian blood will clot and dissolve on itself if allowed to stand
        
        An enzyme named streptokinase (made by the bacteria) activates the inactive precursors to plasmin named plasminogen. This activation leads to the breakdown of blood clots.
        
        Certain haemolytic strains of streptococcal bacteria can be administered intravenously to treat deep vein thrombosis or myocardial infraction
      - Streptodornase
        
        Application
        
        Can breakdown dioxyribonucltide acids and DNA
        
        Usually administered together with streptokinase to break down pus found with the blood clot
      - L-asparaginase
        
        Rapidly dividing cancer cells are using up amino acids very quickly especially L-asparaginase which is an essential requirement of tumours
        
        Some bacteria such as clostridium difficile produces an enzyme that can breakdown the amino acid. preventing the tumour from growing further
        
        This is a targeted response
      - Use of fungus
        
        2-3 years after Alexander flaming discovered the medicinal properties of the use of fungus to kill bacteria. Florey and chain isolated teh active compound but can only produced a very small amount of the medicinal oroudct.
        
        Moyer devised a new method of producing large quantities of the active compound using a nutrient broth with controlled aeration
        
        This resulted in much higher yields
      - Dextrans
        
        Polysacchriade used as a substitute for plasma
        
        It is produced from lactic acid and sucrose in bacteria
  - - - Can be be produced commercially by fermentation
        
        Brevibacterium flavum
        
        Corynebacterium glutamicium
  - - - `Can be produced commercially in high yield by some moulds and some bacteria
      - Deficieincy
        
        This is characterised by burning feet and an inflamed tongue
    - - Synthsised only by micro-organisms
        
        These are found throughout the gut and are dependant on dietary intake
        
        It can be used to synthesise DNA and myelin
        
        Deficiney
        
        this is characterised by dementia and depression
        
        Megoblastic anaemia - large and small red blood cells
        
        High yielding strains
        
        pseudomonas
  - - - BCG strain causes tuberculosis in cattle but not humans. so it can be used to induce a symptomless infection which can generate immunity against its human counterpart.
  - - - This allows their possible application as trojan horses whereby antibiotics are attached to siderophores are taken by gram-negative bacteria.
- - - - Nitrogen fixation
      - Phosphorus solubilisation and mobilisation
      - Disease prevention and control and prevention by fungal species
- - - - CO2
        
        Making bread rise
      - Alcohol
        
        Alcoholic drinks
        
        Bottom fermenting yeast
        
        Saccromyces Carlsberggenesis
        
        Reduced ester content therefore less of a fruits taste and can be used to produce lagers
        
        Top fermenting yeast
        
        Saccromyces cerevilum
        
        process esters that give a fruity taste and can be produced to proceed ales
  - - - Gut flora outcompetes pathogenic flora and so it is able to keep digestive system healthy
      - Stable ecosystem of 1.2 Kg of bacteria
      - Anti-biotic associated diarrhoea
        
        Causes enlargement of the colon with membranes developing on the top
- - - - Attenuate strains by deleting genes involved in disease
    - - Relevant microbes antigens are processed and administrated
        
        An example of this is the use of generically engineered yeast that can make the Hep B. antigens
    - - Defined fragments of pathogenic DNA that can code for fragments are adminstered in the form of plasmids to which then the plasmid is cloned and inserted into the host
  - - - Micro-organisms and even some organisms can be genetically engineered to produce the proteins