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Animal Behavior & Ecology (Ch. 51 - Animal Behavior (Types of Behavior…

- - - - A behavior possessed from the moment the organism's life begins (Ex: Grasping reflex of babies)
    - - Series of actions based on a stimulus (Ex: Goose not distinguishing between an egg and round object)
    - - Behavior that happens during an impressionable period in your life (Ex: Konrad Lorenz making baby geese think he is their mother)
    - - Associating stimuli with an effect (Ex: Pavlov's dog)
    - - Using rewards/punishments for behaviors (Ex: A rat touches a green switch and gets food and then pushes a red one and gets nothing)
    - - Ignoring a stimulus after constant exposure (Ex: Prairie dogs becoming used to the sound of human footsteps)
    - - Learning by watching another organism (Ex: Octopi watching each other opening bottles and learning how to do so)
    - - Problem-solving ability (Ex: The candle and tacks problem)
  - - - Natural selection will choose traits that help an organism survive the best, including behavior, and allow those to be passed on to future generations
    - - Behaviors are controlled by genes that can be altered in response to stimuli and other factors, causing them to either be dropped or passed on
- - - - The Coriolis Effect deflects air as it moves from high to low pressure in the Northern Hemisphere, which creates cyclonic systems of weather, which we know as "hurricanes" in the Northern Hemisphere.
    - - Whenever warm, moist air reaches a mountain, it rises and cools, which releases moisture on the windward side. On the leeward side, cooler, dry air drops and absorbs moisture, which creates a rain shadow. Rain shadows usually determine where there are deserts.
    - - The tilt of Earth causes the intensity of solar radiation from the sun to vary at certain periods of time, known as seasons. In summer, we face the sun directly and receive the most radiation. The opposite is true for winter. For spring and summer, we directly face the sun and receive moderate radiation
    - - Ocean currents heat or cool overlying air masses that pass across land and influence climate in this way
  - - - Tropical Forest
        
        Location: Equatorial and sub-equatorial regions
        
        Precip.: For tropical rain forests, avg. is 200 - 400 cm annually & for tropical dry forests, it is 150 - 200 cm annually
        
        Temp.: Average of 25-29 C with very little seasonal variation
        
        Animals: amphibians, birds, mammals, reptiles, arthropods
        
        Plants: canopy trees, sub-canopy trees, shrubs & herbs
      - Savanna
        
        Location: Equatorial & sub-equatorial regions
        
        Precip.: 30 - 50 cm annually on average
        
        Temp.: 24 - 29 C year-round with some seasonal variation
        
        Animals: wildebeests, zebras, lions, hyenas, insects
        
        Plants: thorny trees, grasses, forbs
      - Desert
        
        Locations: Near 30 degrees north & south lat. and at other lats. in interior of continents
        
        Precip.: Very low (> 30 cm per year)
        
        Temp.: Variable; hot deserts can reach 50 C and cold deserts can drop to -30 C
        
        Animals: snakes, lizards, ants, scorpions, beetles, seed-eating rodents
        
        Plants: succulents, shrubs, herbs, other heat-tolerant plants
      - Chaparral
        
        Location: Midlat. coastal regions
        
        Precip.: Highly seasonal; annual avg. is 30 - 50 cm
        
        Temp.: Fall, winter & spring avg. at 10 - 12 C, while summer can reach 30 - 40+ C
        
        Animals: deer, goats, insects, amphibians, birds, reptiles
        
        Plants: shrubs, small trees, grasses, herbs
      - Temperate Grassland
        
        Temp.: Winters generally fall below -10 C, the summers approach 30 C
        
        Locations: South Africa, Hungary, Argentina, Uruguay, Russia, central North America
        
        Plants: grasses, forbs
        
        Precip.: Highly seasonal, dry winters & wet summers (average is 30 - 100 cm annually)
        
        Animals: bison, wild horses, burrowing mammals
      - Temperate Broadleaf Forest
        
        Location: Mostly in midlat. in Northern Hemisphere
        
        Precip.: Avg. is 70 to 200+ cm annually
        
        Temp.: Winter avg. is 0 C, summer avg. is up to 35 C
        
        Animals: birds, mammals, insects
        
        Plants: epiphytes, deciduous trees
      - Tundra
        
        Location: Arctic
        
        Precip.: In arctic tundra, annual avg. is 20 - 60 cm, while in alpine tundra, it can reach over 100 cm annually
        
        Temp.: Winters see an avg. of -30 C, while summers avg. less than 10 C
        
        Animals: musk oxen, caribou, raindeer, foxes, bears, wolves
        
        Plants: mosses, grasses, forbs, dwarf shrubs, small trees, lichens
      - Northern Coniferous Forest
        
        Location: northern North America, northern Eurasia, edge of Arctic tundra (Siberia)
        
        Precip.: 30 - 70 cm annually, but periodic droughts common; some coastal coniferous forests receive over 300 cm of rain annually
        
        Temp.: Winters are cold, summers might be hot (in Siberia, there is a range of -50 C in winter & 20 C in summer)
        
        Animals: migratory birds, moose, brown bears, Siberian tigers
        
        Plants: cone-bearing trees
    - - Lakes
        
        Chemical: salinity, O2 concentration & nutrient content differ in each lake
        
        Physical: range from few sq. meters to thousands of sq. kilometers, temperate lakes may have seasonal thermocline
      - Wetlands
        
        Physical: inundated by water, supports plants that like water-saturated soil
        
        Chemical: water and soil is periodically low in dissolved O2, filter nutrients and chemical pollutants
      - Streams & Rivers
        
        Physical: Headwater streams are cold, clear & turbulent; further downstream, the water is warmer and more turbid
        
        Chemical: salinity and nutrient content increases from headwater to mouth, headwaters are rich in O2
      - Estuaries
        
        Physical: high-density seawater occupies bottom of channel and mixes some with lower-density river water
        
        Chemical: salinity varies within estuaries, nutrients are abundant
      - Intertidal Zones
        
        Physical: periodically submerged and exposed by tides; upper zones have greater salinity and temp. variations
        
        Chemical: O2 and nutrients are abundant and renewed with each turn of the tides
      - Oceanic Pelagic Zones
        
        Physical: mixed by wind-driven oceanic currents, photic zone extends to greater depths than coastal marine waters
        
        Chemical: O2 levels are high, nutrient content is lower than coastal waters
      - Marine Benthic Zones
        
        Physical: consists of seafloor below surface waters of neritic zone, receives no sunlight, very high pressure and very low temps.
        
        Chemical: O2 is abundant enough to support diverse marine life
      - Coral Reefs
        
        Physical: created by the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals, high water clarity
        
        Chemical: high O2 levels and high inputs of nutrients and fresh water
- - - - Density independent: birth and death rates; Density dependent: death rate that increases with pop. density or birth rate that falls with the same increase in density
    - - Density is changed mainly by immigration and emigration of different individuals in a population
    - - Major differences in local pop. density create patterns of pop. dispersion. The most common dispersion pattern is clumped (individuals are in patches). Uniform dispersion results from hostile social interactions. Random dispersion sees the position of each individual being independent of any others
  - - - An exponential model describes pop. growth in an essentially "perfect" environment. It shows how populations can expand when resources are abundant. Ex: A bacterium reproducing every 20 minutes flawlessly
    - - A logistic model describes how a population's growth slows down the closer it gets to its carrying capacity. This puts a limit on resources. Ex: Populations that are rapidly becoming extinct due to mass shortage of resources and many individuals dying