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Animal Behavior and Ecology (Animal Behaviors (Imprinting (Lorenz and the…
Animal Behavior and Ecology
Animal Behaviors
Imprinting
Lorenz and the ducklings which follow him instead of their mother.
innate program for acquiring a specific behavior only if an appropriate stimulus is experienced during a critical period (a limited time interval during the life of an animal)
Associative Learning
Ivan Pavlolv- Salivating dogs
occurs when an animal recognizes (earns ) that two or more events are connected. A form of associative learning called classical conditioning occurs when an animal performs a behavior in response to a substitute stimulus rather than the normal stimulus
Fixed Action Pattern
territorial response of male sticklebacks
innate behaviors that follow a regular, unvarying pattern; initiated by a specific stimulus; improves fitness by providing a successful and dependable mechanism for the animal to perform in response to an event that, through evolution, has become expected
Trial & Error (Operant Conditioning)
John Klien taught crows to put quarters into vending machines to get food.
form of associative learning. It occurs when an animal connects its own behavior with a particular environmental response. If the response is desirable (positive reinforcement), the animal will repeat the behavior in order to elicit the same response (to receive a reward)
Innate
Babies have a grabbing instinct
All individuals in a population exhibit virtually same behavior , behavior is developmentally fixed. Genetically inherited, automatic, involuntary, unlearned and consistent response to a stimulus.
Habituation
Prairie dog eventually stops calling for danger when they see humans if they do not cause harm to them
allows the animal to disregard meaningless stimuli
Insight
Give chimpanzee a banana attached to the top of the ceiling and boxes which won't reach it. The chimpanzee will stack the boxes together to get it.
occurs when an animal, exposed to a new situation and without any prior relevant experience performs a behavior that generates a desirable outcome
Observational Learning
Give octopus a bottle with food inside. Individually, about half the octopus can open it, but half can't. When an octopus is placed next to another octopus in a nearby tank, then it will watch that octopus and mimic it to get the food.
occurs when animals copy the behavior of another animal without experienced any prior positive reinforcement with the behavior
Terrestrial Biomes
Tropical Forest
Temperature: 25-29 celsius year round
Dominant animals: millions of animals species, including an estimated 5- 30 million undescribed species of insects, spiders, and other arthropods
Dominant plants: variety of trees and shrubs because they are vertically layered (intense competition for light)
Precipitation: Topical rainforest- 200-400 cm rainfall annually
Tropical dry forest- 150-200 cm rainfall annually
Location: equatorial and subequatorial regions
Desert
Precipitation: low and highly variable, generally less than 30 cm per year
Temperature: low and variable, temp is variable seasonally and daily; hot: exceeds 50 celsius cold: fall below -30 celsius
Location: occur in bands near 30 degrees north and south of the equator, and in the interior of continents
Dominant animals: many kinds of snakes and lizards, scorpions, ants and beetles, migratory and resident birds, and seed-eating rodents, many nocturnal
Dominant plants: low scattered vegetation (cacti, deeply rooted shrubs)
Savanna
Precipitation: seasonal rainfall averages 30-50 cm/year (dry season can last up to 9 months)
Temperature: warm year round, averages 24-29 celsius
Location: equatorial and subequatorial regions
Dominant animals: insects and mammals such as wildebeests, zebras, lions, hyenas, and termites
Dominant plants: grasses and forbs make up most of the ground cover, thorny scattered trees with small leaves
Chaparral
Location: midlatitude coastal regions on several continents
Precipitation: precipitation is highly seasonal with rainy winters and dry summers; 30-50 cm of annual rainfall
Temperature: summer can reach 30 celsius; fall, winter, and spring reach 10-12 celsius
Dominant animals: amphibians, birds, and other reptiles, insects, small mammals, and browsers (deers and goats)
Dominant plants: shrubs and small trees, along with many kinds of grasses and herbs
Temperate Grassland
Locations: veldts of South Africa, Puszta of Hungary, pampas of Argentina and Uruguay, steppes of Russia, and the plains and prairies of central North America
Precipitation: highly seasonal, average annual rainfall 30-100 cm (dry winters and wet summers)
Temperature: winters are often below -10 degrees and dry summers are often near 30 degrees and wet
Dominant animals: native mammals include large grazers such as bison and wild horses and small burrowers such as prairie dogs
Dominant plants: grasses and forbs (adapted to droughts and fire)
Northern Coniferous Forest
Precipitation: annual rainfall ranges from 30-70 cm (temperate rainforests receive over 300 cm rainfall)
Temperature: winters are cold, summers may be hot (Siberia ranges from -50 to 20 degrees)
Location: spans northern North America and Eurasia and is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth
Dominant animals: migratory and resident birds and large mammals such as moose, brown bears and Siberian tigers
Dominant plants: conifers such as pine, spruce and fir, and hemlock
Temperate Broadleaf Forest
Precipitation: annual rainfall ranges from 70 to over 200 cm (year round)
Temperature: winter averages 0 celsius, while summers are hot and humid; up to 35 celsius
Location: midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, with smaller areas in Chile, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand
Dominant animals: mammals, birds, and insects make use of all vertical layers in the forest
Dominant plants: vertical layers are dominated by deciduous trees in Northern Hemisphere and evergreen eucalyptus in Australia; shrubs and herbs in lower layers
Tundra
Precipitation: annual rainfall averages from 20-60 cm in the arctic, but can exceed 100 cm in the alpine
Temperature: winters can average below -30 celsius; summer averages less than 10 celsius
Location: covers expansive areas of the Artic; alpine tundra exists on high mountain tops at all latitudes
Dominant animals: musk oxen, caribou, reindeer, bears, wolves, and foxes
Dominant plants: mainly herbaceous; mosses, grasses, and forbs. also has some dwarf shrubs, trees, and lichens
Aquatic biomes
Estuaries
Physical: transition area between river and sea
Chemical: salinity varies with rise and fall of the tides
;nutrient-rich
Streams/Rivers
Physical: current headwaters are generally cold, clear, turbulent. swift, and oxygen-rich, they are often narrow and rocky
Chemical: downstream waters from rivers and are generally more oxygenated, they are often wide and meandering and have sillty bottoms
Intertidal Zones
Physical: periodically submerged and exposed by the tides
Chemical: oxygen and nutrient levels are generally high and are renewed with each turn of the tide
Ocean Pelagic Zones
Physical: vast realm of open blue water, constantly mixed by wind-driven oceanic currents
Chemical: oxygen levels are high, while nutrient concentration is low
Wetlands
Physical: habitat that is inundated by water at least some of the time and that supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil
Chemical: have high organic production and decomposition and have low dissolved oxygen
Coral Reefs
Physical: formed from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals
Chemical: require high oxygen concentrations, excluded by high inputs of fresh water and nutrients
Lakes
Physical: standing bodies of water range from ponds a few square meters in area to lakes covering thousands of square kilometers
Chemical;
Oligotrophic lakes; nutrient-poor and generally oxygen-rich
Eutrophic lakes; nutrient-rich and often depleted of oxygen if ice covered in water
Marine Benthic Zones
Physical: consists of the sea floor below the surface waters of the coastal, or neritic, zone and the offshore pelagic zone
Chemical: oxygen is present at sufficient concentrations to support diverse animal life
Density dependent and independent factors
independent: Any factor in the environment that does not depend on the number of members in a population per unit area (natural phenomena)
Examples: temperature, sunlight energy, rainfall,
volcanic eruptions, drought, flooding, tornadoes, etc.
dependent: Any factors in the environment that depends on the numbers per unit area
Examples: Competition for resources, territoriality, heath (disease/parasites), predation, and toxic wastes (bacteria)
Models of Population Growth
Exponential
Definition: Population increase under idealized conditions
Example: drV/dt = V(max)N (J-Shaped)
Logistic
Definition: population grows more slowly as it nears its carrying capacity; Per capita rate of increase approaches zero as the carrying capacity is reached
Example: dN/dt = r(max)N (K-N)/K (S-Shaped)
Major factors that affect population density and dispersion
Deaths
Immigration
Influx of new individuals from other areas
Births
Emigration
Movement of individuals out of a population
Population Density
Number of individuals living in an area
Population Dispersion
Pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population
factors that produce different environments
Coriolis Effect
the deflection of air or water as a result of differences in Earth's rotational speed at different latitudes
Rainshadow Effect
when cool and dry air descends and absorbs moisture in the air, creating a dry environment
Edge Effects
abiotic and biotic changes to the edge of a habitat brought about by habitat fragmentation
Seasonality
caused by the Earth's tilted axis of rotation and annual passage around the sun. Strong seasonal cycles in the middle to high latitudes, and global changes in day length, solar radiation, and temperature
Ecological footprint
Land and water required to sustain the people of a nation
Life Histories
The lifetime pattern of growth, maturation, and reproduction that is characteristic of a population or species
History of Human Population Growth
The worldwide human population grew slowly until 200 years ago, when it began to increase explosively. The dip in the mid-fourteenth century represents the death of 60 million Asians and Europeans from the bubonic plague. The table shows the years when the human population reached each additional billion people.
easy version:
Used to be high birth rates and high death rates, Population would double every decade, Now its stabilizing and slowly decreasing through low birth rates and low death rates
Reasons for Animal Behavior
Mate
Eat
Avoid Predators
Raise Young
These Behaviors Evolve By
Eating
Mating
Survival