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Animal behavior & Ecology (Animal behavior (4 major motivations for…
Animal behavior & Ecology
Animal behavior
Innate/ instinct
Define: genetically programmed instinct, natural reflex from day one
Example: Baby grasping hand
Fixed Action pattern
Define: series of action taken to reach stimuli
Example: A goose will sit on an egg or even a billiard/ light bulb (anything in its nest)
Imprinting
Define: must occur during a critical thinking time
Example: geese will imprint on mother & follow her
Associative learning
Define: association of stimuli to stimuli or other actions
Example: bears will go to bird feeders to eat their food, then associate the location with food
Trial & error ( Operant conditioning)
Define: teaching complex behavior through trial and error
Example: Crow vending machine, crows find coins, then put it in the slot to receive food
Habituation
Define: receiving the same stimuli then ignore it
Example: Prairie dogs scream, with other predators including humans, if humans keep coning & do not harm Prairie dogs, they stop screaming
Observation learning
Define: watching another organism and mimicking that action
Researcher holding a monkey and the person is sticking out its tongue then monkey does the same
Insight
Define: receiving a problem and eventually figuring out a solution
Example: Putting a banana on the ceiling than there are boxes on the ground for the monkey to arrange them to reach the banana
4 major motivations for animal behavior
Mate
Example
Horny Siberian hamster- male smells female pheromones miles away and run to find her
can evolve by being faster because the faster gene will pass down since mating will be more likely
Eat
Example
Alligator snapping turtle- sticks out pink tongue to attract fish, the pinker the tongue & movement means more food
can evolve to a more pink tongue because food will allow it to live to reproduce and pass down gene
avoid predators
Example
Octopus: An octopus camouflaging to avoid predators
can evolve to camouflage faster and better since the octopus that does it better will live and pass down the gene
raise younge
Example
Geese: a geese will sit on a egg even if its not theirs
can evolve because there will be more geese that survive and learn this action
Ecology & the biosphere
major terrestrial biomes
Tropical forest
Location: tropical forest occurs in equatorial & subequatorial region
Precipitation: rainfall is relatively constant, about 200-400 cm annually ( in tropical dry forest precipitation is highly seasonal about 150-200 cm annually w/ 6 to 7 months of dry season)
temperature: high year-round, averaging 25-29 degrees Celsius with little seasonal variation
Dominant organisms: trees, shrubs & herbs ( small, non-woody plants), insects, spiders, & arthropods, amphibians , birds & other reptiles, & mammals
Desert
location: deserts occur in bands near 30 degrees north & south latitude or at other latitudes in the interior of continents
precipitation: It is low and highly variable, generally less than 30 cm per year
temperature: is variable seasonally & daily; maximum air temperature in hot desert may exceed 50 degrees Celsius; cold desert temp. may fall below -30 degrees Celsius
Dominant organisms: low, widely scattered vegetation; cacti or euphorbs, deeply rooted shrubs, also snakes, lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, birds,& seed eating rodents
Savanna
location: occurs in equatorial & subequatorial regios
precipitation: seasonal rainfall averages 30-50 cm per year; dry season can last up to 8 or 9 months
temperature: warm year around; averaging 24-29 degrees Celsius, but with somewhat more seasonal variation that in tropical forest
Dominant organisms: scattered trees, different densities often thorny & have small leaves, forbs, large plant-eating mammals (zebra, wildebeests) & insects; also large predators like lions& hyenas
Chaparral
Location: Midlatitude coastal regions on several continents
precipitation: highly seasonal, w/ rainy winters & dry summers; annual precipitation generally falls within the range of 30- 50 cm
temperatures: fall, winter, & spring are cool averaging 10-12 degrees Celsius ; average summer can reach 30 degrees Celsius
Dominant organisms: shrubs, small trees, variety of grasses & herbs, adapted woody plants; mammals such as dear, goats, amphibians, birds & other reptiles, & insects
Temperate grassland
Location: veldts of south Africa, the puszta of Hungary, pampas of Argentina & Uruguay , & North America are all example of temperate grassland
precipitation: often highly seasonal, w/ relatively dry winters & wet summers annual precipitation generally average 30- 100 cm ; droughts are also common
temperature: winters generally cold , average temp. falling below -10 degrees Celsius; summers average approach 30 degrees Celsius
Dominant organisms: grasses & forbs; which vary in height from few cm to 2 m in tallgrass prairie ; large grazers such as bison & wild horses, burrowing mammals, such as prairie dogs in north america
Northern coniferous forest
Location: extending in a broad band across northern North America & Eurasia to the edge of the arctic tundra; largest biome on Earth
precipitation: annual precipitation ranges from 30-70 cm, droughts are common; (some coastal coniferous forest are temperate rain forest & may receive over 300 cm annually of precipitation)
temperature: winters are usually cold; summer may be hot; some areas of coniferous forest in Siberia typically range from -50 degrees Celsius in winter & over 20 degrees Celsius in summer
Dominant organisms: cone-bearing trees( pine, spruce, fir, & hemlock) , shrubs& herb layers; moose, brown bears, & Siberian tigers
Temperate Broadleaf forest
location: found mainly at midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, w/ smaller areas in Chile, South Africa, Australia, & New Zeland
Precipitation: it can average from 70 to over 200 cm annually, significant amounts fall during all seasons, including summer rain & some forest winter snow
temperature: Winter temp. average 0 degrees Celsius; temp. up to 35 degrees Celsius ( hot & humid)
Dominant Organisms: closed canopy, one or two strata of understory trees, a shrub layer, 7 a herb layer; many mammals, & birds, insects
Tundra
Location: covers expansive areas of the arctic, amounting to 20% OF Earth land surface, Very high mountaintops at all latitudes, including the tropics
Precipitation: precipitation averages from 20-60 cm annually in arctic tundra but may exceed 100 cm in alpine tundra
Temperature: Winters are cold, w/ averages in some areas below -30 degrees Celsius ; Summer temp. are generally average less than 10 degrees Celsius
Dominant Organisms: Mostly herbaceous , mixture of mosses, grasses, & forbs along with some dwarf shrubs & tree & lichens; oxen, bears, wolves, & foxes, birds migrate
Major Aquatic biomes
Lakes
Physical
light decreases with depth, creating stratification temperate lake may have a seasonal thermocline
Standing bodies of water ranges from ponds a few square meters in areas to lake covering thousands of square kilometers
tropical lowland lakes have a thermocline year around
Chemical
Oligotrphic lakes tend to be nutrient poor & generally oxygen-rich
Eutrophic lakes are nutrients- rich & ofton depleted of oxygen
high rates of decomposition in deeper layers of eutrophic lakes cause periodic oxygen depletion; the amount of disposable organic matter in bottom sediments is low in oligotrophic lakes & high in eutrophic lakes
Wetland
Physical
wetland is a habitat that is inundated by water at least some of the time & that support plants adapted to water-saturated soil
some wetlands are inundated at all times, whereas other flood infrequently
Chemical
both the water & the soil are periodically low in dissolved oxygen
Wetland have a high capacity to filter dissolved nutrients & chemical pollutants
Streams & Rivers
Physical
most prominent characteristic is speed & volume of their flow; streams & rivers are stratified into vertical zones
Streams are generally cold, clear, swift, & turbulent; father downstream tributaries join forming a river which are warmer & more turbid
Chemical
Salt & nutrients content of streams & rivers increase from the headwaters to the mouth
headwaters are generally rich in oxygen, downstream water may also contain substantial oxygen except where there has been organic enrichment
large fraction of the organic matter in rivers consists of dissolved or highly fragmented material
Estuaries
physical
estuary is a transition area between river & sea; seawater may flow up or down during different tides
Ofton higher-density seawater occupies the bottom of the channel & mixes little w/ the lowest-density river water at the surface
Chemical
salinity varies spatially within estuaries, from nearly that of fresh water to the of seawater
Salinity also varies w/ the rise & fall of the tides
Nutrients from the river make estuaries, like wetland, among the most productive biomes
Intertidal Zones
Physical
Intertidal zones is periodically submerged & exposed by the tides, twice daily on most marine shores
Upper zones experience longer exposures to air & greater variation in temp. & salinity
Changes in physical conditions from the upper to the lower intertidal zones limit the distribution of many organisms to particular strata
Chemical
Oxygen & nutrient levels are generally high & are renewed w/ each turn of the tides
Oceanic Pelagic Zone
physical
Oceanic pelagic zone is a vast realm of open blue water, constantly mixed by wind driven oceanic current
because of higher water clarity, the photic zone extend to greater depth than in coastal marine water
Chemical
Oxygen levels are generally high; nutrients concentration are generally lower that in coastal waters
because they are thermally stratified year-around, some tropical zones have lower nutrient concentrations than temp. oceans
Coral Reefs
Physical
coral reefs are formed largely from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals. shollow reef-building corals live in the photic zone of relatively stable tropical marine environment w/ high water clarity
Sensitive to temp. below about 18-20 degrees Celsius & above 30 degrees Celsius; Deep coral reefs are found between 200 & 1500 m deep
Chemical
Coral requires high oxygen levels & are excluded by high inputs of fresh water & nutrients
Marine Benthc Zone
Physical
Marine benth Zone consist of the seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal, or neritic, zone & the offshore pelagic zone
Water temp. declines w/ depth, while pressure increases
Chemical
Except in areas of organic enrichment, oxygen is usually present at sufficient concentration to support divers animal life
production of different environmenta
Coriolis effect
in northern hemisphere the air flows clockwise
in southern hemisphere the air flow is counterclockwise
title of the Earth
since the Earth is tilted on its axis (23.5 degrees) the intensity of the solar radiation can vary seasonally
soltice
21st of June/ December is when the tilt is direct or further from the sun
equinox
when tilts is perpendicular to the sun on 21st of March/ September
Rainshadow
Step 1. cool air flow inland from the water, moderating temp. near the shore
Step 2. Air that encounters mountains flow upward, cools at higher altitude, & released water as precipitation
step 3. less moisture is left in the air reaching the leeward side, which therefore has little precipitation, the rain shadow can create a desert on the back side of the mountain
population Ecology
factors that affect population density & dispersion
dispersion
pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population
random
movement is random; dandelions grow from windblown seeds that land at random & later germinate
uniform
evenly space; nesting king penguins exhibit nearly uniform spacing because of aggressiveness of the other penguins
clumped
where individuals are aggregated in patches; sea stars group together where food is abundant
density
the number of individuals per unit area or volume; changes as individuals are added or removed from the population
imigration
the influx of new individuals from other areas
emigration
the movement of individuals out of population into another area
models of population growth
exponential
define: growth of a population in an ideal, unlimited environment, represented by a j-shape curve when population size is plotted over time
Example: this happens only when resources are unlimited
Logistic
Define: population growth that levels off as population size approaches carrying complicity
Example:K is known as carrying capacity ; K is the maximum population size that a particular environment can sustain (resources are limited)
Factors that affect population growth
density dependent
a death rate that falls with rising density
competition for resources
increasing population density intensifies competition for nutrients & other resources, reducing reproductive rates
farmers minimizing the effect of resources competition on the growth of wheat & other crops by applying fertilizing to reduce nutrient limitation on crop yield
Disease
if transmission rate of a disease increases as a population becomes more crowed, then the disease's impact is density dependent
In humans the flue will strike more people if someone sneezes in a densely populated of populated cities than in rural areas
Predation
Predation can be an important cause of density-dependent mortality if a predator captures more food as the population density of the prey increases
as a prey population builds up, predators may also feed preferentially on that species
territoriality
can limit population density when space becomes the resources for which individuals compete
Cheetahs uses a chemical marker in urine to warn other cheetahs of their territorial boundaries
Intrinsic factors
Intrinsic physiological factors can regulate population size
reproductive rates of white-footed mice in a field enclosure can drop even when food & shelter are abundant
Toxic Wastes
Yeast, such as the brewer's yeast saccharmoyces cerevisiae, are used to convert carbohydrates to thanol in winemaking
The ethanol that accumulates in the wine is toxic to yeast & contributes to density-dependent regulation of yeast population size
density Independent
A birth rate or death rate that does not change with population density
natural disater
Earthquake, volcano eruption, floods ect.
loss of food supply
Human population Growth
history of human population growth
Year:1804 population was 1 billion
year: 1927 population was 2 billion
year: 1960 population was 3 billion
year: 1974 population was 4 billion
year: 1987 population was 5 billion
year: 1999 population was 6 billion
1 more item...
difference between countries
highest population
1: China, 2: India, 3. U.S.A.
highest growth rate
All three countries are in Africa
ecological footprint
the concept summarizes that aggregate land & water area required by each person, city, or nation to produce all the resources it consumes & to absorb all the waste it generates
24 acres per person in a developed country
2.7 acres per person in underdeveloped countries