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Interactions with the Environment (Animal Behavior (Associative learning…
Interactions with the Environment
Animal Behavior
Associative learning
associating a stimulus w/ effect
Pavlov's Dog
helps an individual organism adapt to its environment, but
does not evolve
; the conditioned response is learned
Innate/instinct
reflexes/behaviors animals have from birth
baby grasping
spider spinning a web
baby kangaroo crawling to mother's pouch
Can evolve - ex: species of spider's web best fits its environment; the spider does not need to learn to make a web, but does it automatically
Fixed action pattern
series of actions taken to completion
goose pulling eggs into its nest
stickleback fish attacking
jeweled wasps hunting cockroaches and using it to lay egg
can evolve - the behavior is automatic and successful completion of the series impacts survival
Imprinting
strength of imprinting may be affected by evolution, but
what
the animal attaches to
cannot evolve
, as that is dependent upon external variables
getting attached to something when exposed at a critical period
ducklings attaching to mother cat
gooselings attaching to humans
Trial & Error (Operant Conditioning)
animal learning to do something when they actively complete and action and get reward
Skinner box
teaching dogs tricks
cannot evolve; learned behavior
Habituation
getting used to a stimulus when exposed to it repeatedly
prairie dogs habituating to human presence
humans habituating to construction sounds
cannot evolve; learned behavior
Observational learning
watching another organism do something and doing what they do
octopus getting into a puzzle box after watching another octopus
mother bear teaching cubs to catch salmon
cannot evolve; learned behavior
Insight
solving problems without help/observation
chimp stacking boxes to reach banana
human using a tack box to attach a candle to a wall
cannot evolve; learned behavior
Ecology and the Biosphere
Earth's climate
climate
- long-term prevailing weather conditions in an area
macroclimate
- patterns on the global, regional, and landscape level
microclimate
- very fine, localized climate patterns, such as those seen in the microhabitat beneath a fallen log
Global Climate Patterns
determined by solar energy and Earth's movement in space
air picks up moisture as it travels close to earth
warm air rises and water precipitates at 0 and 60 degrees N and S of equator
cool air falls and picks up moisture again, creating deserts at 30 deg N and S of equator and at poles
Regional and Local Affects on Climate
the tilt of Earth's axis (23.5 deg) creates seasons
when the N hemisphere is more pointed towards the sun, it is summer while the S hemisphere is in winter and vice versa
when the earth's axis is parallel to the sun, it is spring or fall
changes in seasons affect day length, solar radiation, and temp; seasonal wind pattern changes alter ocean currents
Bodies of Water
ocean currents infl climate along coasts by heating/cooling air masses that pass across the land
oceans & lakes moderate the climate of nearby land
Mountains
rain shadow
- as air from the sea hits mt, it goes up and releases water; air flowing down the other side of mountain is dry
mts also affect sunlight reaching an area, affecting local temp and rainfall
abiotic factors
- nonliving factors that affect environment; temp, light, water, and nutrients
biotic factors
- living things that affect the environment; plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi
Global Climate Change
burning things and deforestation are increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in atmo
can predict possible effects of future climate change by looking back at changes that have occurred in temperate regions since last ice age ended
organisms may have trouble keeping up w/ rapid climate changes
Terrestrial Biomes
Features
most terrestrial biomes named for maj phys/climatic features and predom vegetation
ecotone
- area of intergration between biomes
layering
- vertical difference in vegetation of a biome
in forests: upper canopy, low-tree layer, shrub understory, ground herbaceous plants, forest floor (litter layer), root layer
provides diff habitats for animals
species composition of each kind of biome varies across locations
Disturbance and Terrestrial Biomes
biomes change over time
disturbance
- event such as storm, fire, or human activity that changes a community, removing orgs and altering resource availabilty
biomes often patchy, containing several diff communities in one area
even dom plants depend on disturbances in some biomes (fires)
Tropical Forest
found along equator
tropical rain forests
have rel constant rain (200-400cm/yr) while
tropical dry forests
have seasonal rain (150-200cm/yr)
high temps year-round, avg 25-29C w/ little variation
plants very layered; broadleaf evergreens dom in rain forests, but trees in dry forests drop leaves during dry seasons
home to millions of diff species
human ag and development is destroying tropical forests
Desert
occur 30 deg N & S of equator or at other latitudes in interior of continents (Gobi Desert)
low precip, highly variable (<30 cm/yr)
temp varies seasonally & daily; max temp in hot deserts can exceed 50C, min temp in cold deserts may go below -30C
widely scattered veg; succulents (cacti/euphorbs), deep rooted shrubs, herbs; evolved to tolerate heat and drought
common animals are snakes, lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, birds, and rodents; many nocturnal
urbanization and irrigation have reduced nat biodeversity in some deserts
Savanna
found along equator
rain 30-50 cm/yr; dry season can last up to 8-9 months
warm year-round, avg 24-29C; somewhat more seasonal variation that trop forests
scattered trees w/ mostly grass; plants fire-adapted or tolerant; grow rapidly w/ seasonal rains & tolerant to grazing
large plant-eating mammals and their predators, insects; grazing mammals migrate during droughts
first humans lived in savannas; ranching and hunting have led to decline in large-mammal pop
Chaparral
midlatitude coastal regions
rainy winters, dry summers (30-50 cm/yr)
cool fall, winter, and spring (10-20C) and hot summers (avg 30C, max 40C)
shrubs, small trees, grasses, and herbs; high plant diversity; drought and fire adaptations
deer, goats, amphibians, birds, reptiles, insects, small mammals
heavily settled and reduced by conversion to ag and urbanization; humans cause sweeping fires
Temperate Grassland
midlatitude
highly seasonal precip, dry summers w/ wet winters; avg betw 30-100 cm/yr; common periodic drought
cold winters (-10C), hot summers (30C)
grasses; adaptations to drought and fires
large grazers, burrowing mammals
conversion to farmland or turned into deserts by cattle
Northern Coniferous Forest (taiga)
extend across north America and Eurasia; largest terrestrial biome
avg precip 30-70 cm/yr w/ periodic droughts; in US Pacific NW, some are temperate rain forests that get 300+ cm/yr
cold winters, sometimes hot summers
cone-bearing trees, some needing fire to regenerate; lower plant diversity than broadleaf forests
birds, diverse mammals, insects
logging by humans reducing size of forests
Temperate Broadleaf Forest
mostly midlatitude Northern Hemisphere, some S
precip 70-200+ cm/yr
Winters avg 0C, summers up to 35C and humid
have distinct vertical layers, deciduous trees
in winter, mammals hibernate and birds migrate; birds, mammals, and insects take up all layers of forest
heavily settled, logged, and cleared for ag and urbanization
Tundra
covers Arctic and 20% of Earth's land surface; high mts w/ harsh winds and low temps called
alpine tundra
precip avg 20-60 cm/yr, can exceed 100 cm in alpine trundra
winters are cold (below -30C), summers below 10C
veg mostly herbaceous w/ mosses, grasses, and forbs w/ some dwarf shrubs and trees and lichens; permafrost restricts plant growth
large grazing mammals, some migratory; predators incl bears, wolves, and foxes; many birds migrate for nesting
barely settled, but heavily mined for minerals and oils
Aquatic biomes
characterized by physical environment
photic zones
- where light is sufficient for photosynthesis
aphotic zone
- where little light reaches
abyssal zone
- part of ocean 2000-6000m below surface
pelagic zone
- photic + aphotic zone
benthic zone
- ocean floor
benthos
- communities of organisms in benthic zones
detritus
- organic dead material that floats down from photic zones
thermocline
- layer of temp change that separates warm upper layer from cold lower layers
lakes are very layered in temp
turnover
- rotating of warm and cold waters in lakes during spring and autumn; sends O2 to the bottom and brings nutrients to the top
communities categorized by water depth, light penetration, distance from shore, and whether they are in open water or near bottom
Lakes
standing bodies of water with large variations in size; seasonal thermocline in temperate regions, constant thermocline in tropics
salinity, O2 concentration, and nutrient content vary among lakes
oligotrophic lakes
- nutrient-poor, O2-rich; decomposable matter low
eutrophic lakes
- nutrient-rich, O2-poor; high rates of decomposition bc of high amt of decompostable matter
olig. lakes may become more eutrophic over time as runoff adds sediment and nutrients to lake; olig. lakes have less surface area rel. to depth compared to eutrophic
rooted and floating aquatic plants in littoral zone
zooplankton graze phytoplankton in limnetic zone; invertebrates along benthic zones; fishes inhabit all zones w/ enough O2
dumping of human wastes can lead to nutrient enrichment, algal booms, O2 depletion, and fish kills
littoral zone
- shallow, well-lit waters close to shore
limnetic zone
- deep water farther from shore too deep for rooted plants
Wetlands
high organic production and decomposition, water and soil periodically low in O2; high capacity to filter nutrients and pollutants
habitat flooded by water at least some of the time
basin wetlands
- develop shallow basons
riverine wetlands
- develop along banks of rivers and streams
fringe wetlands
- occur along coasts of large lakes and seas; incl both freshwater and marine biomes
among most productive biomes on earth; plants adapted to grow in water w/o O2 on occasion; woody plants dom swamps, mosses dom bogs
invertebrates, birds, crustaceans, insects, muskrats, dragonflies, otters, frogs, alligators, herons
help purify water and reduce peak flooding; draining and filling destroyed up to 90% of wetlands
Streams and Rivers
headwater streams
- cold, clear, turbulent, swift; downstream waters warmer and more turbid
nutrient and salt comp increases from headstreams to mouth; headstreams have high O2; most org material carried from forested streams
headwater channels narrow w/ rocky bottom, alt betw shallow and deep; downstream wide; river bottoms silty
streams that flow thru grasslands/deserts my have phytoplankton or rooted aquatic plants
fishes and invertebrates
pollution degrades water qual and kills orgs; damming and flood ctrl impair nat functioning of ecosysts and threatening migratory fish
Estuaries
transition area betw river and sea
salinity varies w/in estuaries w/ rise and fall of tides; high nutrient content
complex network of tidal channels, islands, natural levees, and mud flats
grasses and algae
worms, oysters, crabs, fish; breeding grounds for marine invertebrates and fish; feeding areas for waterfowl and marine mammals
human filling, dredging, and pollution flow in from upstream
Intertidal zones
periodically submerged and exposed by tides; upper zones exposed to air longer w/ more variation in temp and salinity
high O2 lvls
rocky or sandy
attached algae on rocks; seagress and algae on sandy areas bays
many animals attached to rock; worms, clams, and crustaceans bury in sand; sponges, sea anemones, starfish, and small fish
oil pollution and construction of rock walls/barriers disrupt zones
Oceanic Pelagic Zone
pelagic zone over open ocean; mixed by wind-driven ocean currents
high O2 lvls, nutrient lvl lower than coasts; tropic oceans have lower nutrient lvls b/c of constant turnover
covers 70% of earth's surface, avg. 4000 m deep
phytoplankton (incl photosynth bacteria)
zooplankton (protists, worms, copepods, krill, jellies, small larvae), large squid, fishes, sea turtles, marine mammals
overfishing and pollution by waste dumping
Coral reefs
formed by coral in photic zones; deep-sea coral reefs found 200-1500 m deep
req high O2 lvls
require solid substrate attachment;
fringing reef
=>
barrier reef
=>
coral atoll
unicellular algae live w/in coral tissues, multicellular red/green algae float independently
corals (cnidarians), fish, invertebrates; animal diversity rivals trop rainforests
collecting coral skeletons and overfishing decrease pop; global warming and pollution kill corals; aquaculture reduces breeding grounds
Marine benthic zones
besides near-coastal areas, receive no sunlight; temp declines w/ depth and pressure increases
O2 usually sufficient for diverse animal life
mostly soft sediments w/ some rocky substrates at reefs, submarine bottoms, and new oceanic crust
seaweeds and algae limited to shallow benthic areas; some orgs found near
deep-sea hydrothermal vents
are chemoautotrophic producers
invertebrates and fishes depend on food from photic zones; giant tube worms, arthropods, and starfish hang around vents
overfishing decimated benthic fish pops and waste dumping depletes O2
Coriolis effect
- water N of equator spins clockwise, counterclockwise in S b/c of Earth's rotation; effects direction of winds and warm waters
carbon cycle
- carbon moving betw atmo, geo, biosphere, and oceans
Population Ecology
Density and Dispersion
dispersion
- pattern of spacing among individs w/in boundaries of pop
population density
- # of individs/unit area or vol
density changes as individs are added to/removed from area thru birth and immigration/death and emigration
dispersion affected by resources available, space needed, territoriality, presence of chems, physical barriers, and space available
Population Growth
exponential growth
population grows more rapidly over time
has to stop eventually as resources will run out
humans show exponential growth
logistic
flattened "curve"; pop size steadily approaching zero as nears carrying capacity (K)
some orgs never level out, always bounce around K
some orgs surge and fall before reaching K
Effects on Population Growth
Density-dependent
competition
humans and fossil fuels
crowding
disease
cowpox wipes out herd of cows
predation
high population of prey animals (ex: squirrels) attracts predators
territoriality
humans fighting over territory with yards and borders
intrinsic
population/social interactions impact on relations betw individuals (ex: meerkats)
toxic wastes
pollution making certain areas uninhabitable
Density-independent
natural disasters
volcano/drought
loss of food supply
bunnies die due to disease, foxes impacted by food loss
Human Population Growth
advances in tech, better health practices, and discovery of germs in 1940s leads to major increase in pop growth
since 1960, 1 bil ppl added to pop around every 12 yrs
developing countries have more babies and fastest growth (more ppl die young); developed countries have fewer babies and growth rate approaching 0
ecological footprint
land and water area required for each person
3rd world country person needs ~2.5 acres
1st world country person needs ~25 acres
if everyone one earth lived like ppl in 1st world countries, we'd need 5 earths