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Environmental Biology (Etiology (Type of Behavior (Observational Learning,…

- - - - Def: Behavior learned by watching/ mimicking another (mirror neuron).
      - Example- 2 octopus in opp. tank, 1 learns how to open a box with crab by watching the other.
      - Main Reason: Aquisition of food.
    - - Def: Behavior that exhibit problem solving skills seen usually in higher organism. Its clear learning or understanding that takes place without overt trial-and-error testing
      - Example: Candle problem solving in Chimpanzees
      - Main Reason: This could initially be for food but overtime some animal like chimpanzees are able to problem solve for different reasons almost like humans.
    - - Def: It is a behavior of an animals becoming used to something, so that they no longer find it unpleasant or think it is a threat.
      - Example: Presenting shrimp to starfish then plastic/plastic till it ignores it.
      - Main Reason:Self- Preservation
    - - Def: a learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement/reward or punishment.It is a Upper level conditioning teaching
      - Example: correlating quarters collection and other problem solving skills with food acquisition in crows
      - Main Reason: For Food acquistion.
    - - Def:learning process in which a new response becomes associated with a particular stimulus. Associating a stimuli with reward/action
      - Example: Pavlov experiment: Dog associated stimuli of food (bell ringing) with food.
      - Main Reason: Food Acquisition
    - - Def: a form of learning in which a very young animal fixes its attention on the first object with which it has visual, auditory, or tactile experience and thereafter follows that object.
      - Example: Ducks following a cat.
      - Main Reason: For Self Preservation/Nurturing
    - - Def: Series of action/behavior that goes on to completion irrespective of the changes to original stimuli e.g Geese drawing in anything that looks like eggs and incubating it.
      - Example: Experiment in which A model of red Sticklebackfish prompts a attack behavior in a sticklebackfish to protect its nesting territory. Stimuli: Red Sticklebackfish
      - Main Reason for behavior: Territorality. To protect its nesting territory against other male Sticklenbackfish. This behavior can evolve in its generation.
    - - Def: Behavior that's genetically hardwired in an organism and can be performed in response to a cue without prior experience. An animal possesses this behavior from day 1 e.g grasping reflex in babies
      - Example: The Jeweled Wasp zoombies the cockroach strategically in order to nest its offspring.
      - Main Reason:For preservation of its kind/Reproduction. This behavior can be passed on to the next generation
- - - - Random Disp:Unprecitable spacing: patterns occurs independent of other individual:Dandelion grow from windblow seeds.
      - Uniform Disp: (Territoriality), direction interactions btw individuals in a community e.g Humans
      - Clumped Disp: Individual aggregated in patches e.g plants& fungi, wolf pack.
    - - Type I: Population drops off steadily: Humans, animals that care for their young.
      - Type II: Constant death rate over their lifespan e.g squirrels, birds.
      - Type III: Reflects high death rates for young which declines for the few that survive e.g fishes,insects,frogs- provide little/no care for their young.
    - - Population- (Birth+immigration)- (death+ Emigration)
      - Growth Rate (r): change in population size during a time interval. r>0 pop going up, r=0 pop stays same,r<0 pop getting smaller.
      - R for Humans is at 1.1-1.2% right now.
      - Growth Rate&Selection
        
        Expoential Growth: Starts slow& then grows fasts. This happens when resources are unlimited.
        
        Logistic growth curve: Per capita rate of population approaches zero as pop size nears K.
        
        Carrying capacity (K): Maximum population size that an env. can sustain.
        
        Most pop eventually levels out at K due to limited resources for the rapidly increasing pop e.g Daphina pop in lab, Guppies in an aquarium.
        
        Semelparous sp: Semel-'once' Parere 'To beget'. One shot pattern of ''big bang'' reproduction and they die off e.g Agave/Century plant, Salmon
        
        Iteroparous sp: ''iterare-repeat''. Repeated reproduction e.g oak tree, turtle
        
        Selection
        
        K selected/Strategist: Selection for traits advantageous at high densities near K, competition is stronger/at the bottom of food chain e.g fishes, tree in forest.
        
        R selected/strategist: Little competition/At top of food chain. Maximize r, pop densities are below K (usually temporary)e.g weeds in abandoned land, insects
        
        Density factors
        
        Density Independent factors:Natural Disaster-Drought & Loss of food.
        
        Density Dependent: Competition for Resources, Predation, Disease/Overpopulation(flu),Toxic waste, Intrinsic factors(hormonal changes that delay sexual maturation), Territoriality(cheetah use urine to mark territory).
        
        Global Human population
        
        Factors affecting Global population.
        
        Ecological footprint
        
        Concept that summarizes the aggregate of land& H2O required by 1 person,city,nation to produce all the resources it absorb all the waste it generates.
        
        1 Global hectare (gha)=a hectare of land or water with a productivity=average of all biologically productive area on Earth.
        
        24 hectare/person in developed countries e.g US, 2.7 in developing country- Afghanistan.
        
        Infant Mortality and Life Expentancy: based on quality of life, diseases. If Infant Mortality is high-more reproduction e.g in Angola vs Spain
        
        Social change/Rising Educational/Carrer Aspiration in women: encourage delayed reproduction
        
        Policies/Family Control e.g in China
        
        Age Structure:comparison in Afghanistan, US& Italy.
        
        Currently, global pop is no longer growing exponentially but increasing rapidly
- - - - Main factors affecting climate -Temp, Precipitation, Sunlight and wind. Regional factors: Seasonality, Bodies of water, Mountains, Effect of city
      - Latitudinal variation to Sunlight:Earth's curved shape induces latitudinal variation.
      - Seasonality: Earth tilted axis of rotation and its annual passage around the sun causes seasonal changes. Not much variation in seasons at the poles (cold&dry)
      - Global climate pattern: determined by input of solar energy and Earth's movement in space. Earth's exact tilt is 23.5 degrees
      - Important Dates
        
        Equnioxes: It appears that the sun directly over the Earth's equator-Vernal equ-March 21st-arrival of Spring in North&Fall in South; Autumal Equ: Sept 21 -Arrival of fall in North&Spring in South.
        
        Summer Solstice: Northern Hemi tilt towards the earth in June 21st.
      - Lat&Long
        
        Latitude:Horizontal planes parallel but not equal to the equator.
        
        Longitude:Long&Equal Length perpendicular to the latitude
        
        Diff climates are formed by varying direction of flow of air. There are Tropical, Temperate, Rainforest&Desert Climate.
      - Climate is condition of the atmosphere over a longtime; Weather is over a short time.
      - Forces that create wind: Intense Solar Radiation& Earth's rotation. Air flows from high pressure to low pressure
      - Terms
        
        Trade Winds: Strong prevailing wind blowing from the east to the tropics.
        
        Doldrums:Prevailing wind that are weak and unusually calm
        
        Westerlies: Prevailing wind blowing from the west at mid latitude.
        
        Earth turn in counter-clockwise direction. Air& water turn in clockwise in the Northern Hemi and Counterclockwise direction in the Southern Hemi-Coriolis effect
    - - Population Eco: study of population size in relation to the environment over time. Tiger population.
      - Community Eco: examines interactions btw species, predation&competition, as it affect community structures& organization E.g Intro of python in Florida.
      - Organismal Eco: Study of 1 organism& its relation to the env e.g how a fish deal with its env.
      - Ecosystem eco: emphasizes energy flow&chemical cycling btw organism&env.
      - Landscape Eco: Focuses on factors controlling exchange of energy, material& organisms across many ecosystem.
      - Global Eco:Examines how regional exchange of energy and material influence functioning&distribution of organism across the biosphere.
    - - It's the Effect of mountain on moisture reaching the other side of the mountain. E.g Western side of a mountain can be rainforest& other side a desert in Nevada
      - Vegetation on either side of the mountain will be different too since difference plants can adapt to the different atmosphere present.
    - - Factors that increase CO2: Pollution, Burning Fossil fuels, Deforestation, Burning any material, wildfires, Volcanoes, increased metabolism by animals.
      - Planting of trees decreases CO2 in the atomsphere.
      - Byproduct of life&inorganic elements<----->material for photosynthesis.
      - Effects of climate change: Increase in atm temp, decrease glaciers&ice, Increase in Ocean levels. Global Warming is major reason for climatic changes.
    - - Abiotic env: Non-Living factors affecting distribution of organism e.g Sunlight,temperature, water,soil.
      - Biotic env:other organisms that are a part of an individual env.
      - Ecotone: is a transition zone btw two biomes e,g btwn forest&grassland or lagoons (water+land=marshes). They have a higher density of a particular of one zone than another
      - Microclimate:the very local region differ from the climate of the area e.g climate in the front of the house vs climate at backyard with lots of trees. Weather:a short-term state of atmospheric conditions.
      - Altitude affects biomes.The higher the altitude- the cooler it is. Precipitation is complex and can be afffected by a couple of other things.
      - Biomes; factors that change biome with over time; Pollution, Urban cities,Natural disaster-Storm, fire, Tornadoes.
    - - Evergreen: Temperate distributed evenly throughtout the year
      - Decidious: Temperate broadleadf forest.
      - Permafrost:a thick subsurface layer of soil that remains frozen throughout the year, occurring chiefly in polar regions.
      - Tropical: occurs in equilatorials. Rainfall is relatively constant.
      - Temperate: Cold winter, woody shrubs trees, Preciptation is seasonal
      - Alpine: It has high winds and low temp.
      - Shrub: a woody plant that is smaller than a tree and has several main stems arising at or near the ground
      - Littoral;a region lying along a shore.
      - Benthic: Region at the bottom of aquatic zone. Maybe deep/shallow
      - Photic: A region where there is enough light for photosynthesis
      - Aphotic: A region where little light penetrate
      - Pelagic: Organisms inhabiting upper layers of opean sea.
      - Thermocline: A narrow layer of abrupt temperature; seperate more uniformly warm upper layer from more uniformly cold deeper waters.
      - Dispersal: Movement of individual/gamete away from its area of origin
      - Turnover: Semiannual mixing of water due to changing temp profiles.
    - - Terrestrial Biomes:
        
        Tropical Forest: occurs at the equatorial/subequtioral regions. rainfall is relatively constant. High temp with little season variation.Epiphytes and orchids are common plants. Anthropods & high diversity of animal present e.g Ghana.
        
        Desert: occurs at 30 degrees N&S latittude e.g Gobi Desert of North Central Asia. Precipation is low& variable. Max hot temp of >50 in hot dessert and <30 in cold desert. Plant include cacti. Animal-Lizards, snakes. Sahara Desert.
        
        Savanna:Similar to temperate. Occurs at equatorial and subequitorial regions. Season Rainfall and dry season up to 8-9months. Warm year round. Plant-scattered trees and grasses. Animals: Lions,Zebra.
        
        Chaparral:: Southern France, Spain. Preciptation is high with rainy winter and dry summers.Fall,winter&spring are cool with avg temp of 10-12C.Plants-Shrubs, Small trees. Animal-goats, amphibians.
        
        Temperate Grassland: veldt of South Africa, Russia. Season with dry winter&wet summers.Periodic drought common. Winter cold<-10 deg, Summer are hot ~30 centigrade. Plants:grasses& forbs. Animal: Large grazers-wild horses, bison
        
        Northern Conferous forest: Occurs around North America.Winter is cold -50 C, summer may be hot >20C.Plants-Pines. Animals-Sibern Tiger, brown bear.
        
        Tundra:covers Arctic. Winters cold~-30C & Summer ~10C.Plants are herbaceos-grasses&mosses.Large grazing oxen, bears ansd wolves.
      - Aquatic Biomes
        
        Wetlands: habitat inundated by H2O sometimes that support plants adapted to water-saturated soil. Low in dissolved O2 cause of decomposers. High Capacity to filter dissolved nutrients.
        
        Streams and Rivers:Stratified into vertical zones. Head water streams-cold,clear,swift& turbulent,Farther Streams- water is warmer and more turbid. Headwater are rich in O2. Has large fraction of organic matter in river.
        
        Lakes : Standing bodies of H2O. Light decreases with depth. May be seasonal thermocline/thermocline year round. Oligotropic lake are nutrient poor/O2 rich. Eutrophic L-nutrient rich but 02 depleted in deepest zone in summer &in winter if covered with ice.
        
        Estuaries: Transition btw river& Sea. Salinity varies from that of seawater to freshwater& also with rise/fall of tides. Nutrient-wise among the most productive biome.
        
        Intertidal Zones:Submerged/Exposed by tides 2 daily on most marine shores. Upper zones have longer exposures to air&>er variation in temp/Salinity.
        
        Oceanic Pelagic Zones:Realm of open blue H2O, oonstantly mixed with wind oceanic current. O2 levels are high.Nutrient conc are lower than coastal H2O
        
        Coral Reefs:Made from Calcium Carbonate skeleton of corals.. Have high H2O clarity (photic zones), near islands. Sensitive to temp below 18-20C& above 30C. Require high O2 levels
        
        Marine Benthic Zone: Consists of seafloor below the surface water of coastal& offshore plagic zones. Receives no sunlight.Temp declines with depth but pressure increases.O2 present to support diverse life.