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Ecology (Types of Animal Behavior (Fixed Action Pattern (Stickleback fish…

- - - - Transition b/w river and sea
      - Physical: seawater flows up estuary during rising tide and back down on falling tide
      - Physical: Higher-density seawater at bottom of channel and mixes little with the lower-density river water at surface
      - Chemical: Salinity varies (nearly freshwater to seawater) due to location and tides, most nutrient rich and productive biomes
      - Southern Spain, Chesapeake Bay
    - - Physical: Upper zones- longer exposure to air and greater variation in temp and salinity
      - Chemical: Nutrient and O2 levels are high and renewed with turn of the tide
      - periodically submerged and exposed by tides (twice daily) on marine shores
      - Rocky intertidal zone on Oregon coast
    - - Physical: speed and volume of flow are significant, headwater streams are cold and clear and gradually gets warmer as a river is formed
      - Chemical: Salt and nutrient content increases from headwater to mouth. Headwater and maybe downstream O2 rich
      - Most of organic matter consisted of dissolved or highly fragmented material carried by current
    - - Physical: water constantly mixed by wind driven currents, photic zone extends to greater depths
      - Chemical: High O2 lvls, lower nutrient conc than coastal waters
      - Vast open blue water
      - Chemical: thermally stratified year-round, some tropical areas have lower nutrient conc
      - Chemical: turnover b/w fall and spring renews nutrients in photic zones of temperate and high-latitude ocean areas
      - Open oceans
    - - Chemical: water and soil low in dissolved O2 with high capacity to filter dissolved nutrients and chemical pollutants
      - Physical: water overwhelmed some of the time but enough to support plants adapted for water-saturated soil, some flood infrequently
    - - Physical: high water clarity, near islands and along edge of some continents
      - Physical: sensitive to temperature below about 18C-20C and >30C
      - Formed from calcium carbonate skeletons of corals
      - Physical: deep coral reefs (b/w 200-1500m deep) diverse life
      - Chemical: requires high O2 lvls and excluded by high inputs of fresh water and nutrients
      - Coral reefs in the Red Sea, Great Barrier Reef
    - - Chemical: salinity, O2 conc, and nutrient content differ. Oligotrophic lakes: nutrient poor and O2 rich, nlow amt of decomposable organic matter
      - Eutrophic lakes: nutrient rich and O2 depleted at deep zones in summer and if covered in ice, high decomposable organic matter amts
      - Physical: small ponds to giant lakes, stratification, temperate lakes have seasonal thermocline and tropical lowland lakes have it year round
    - - Neritic - coastal zone
      - Physical: Except for shallow and near-coastal areas, this area receives no sunlight
      - Marine Benthic Zone - seafloow below surface waters of the coastal zone and offshore pelagic zone
      - Physical: Water temp declines with depth and increases in pressure
      - Chemical: O2 usually present at sufficient conc to support diverse life
      - @ lowest level of a body of water
  - - - Occurs when warm, wet air from tropics cools - plentiful rain in tropics
      - @ 60 degrees N and S: air masses rise and release water (not as much as tropics
    - - Bodies of Water
        
        Ocean currents affect coastal climates
        
        Heats or cools air masses that pass across land
        
        High specific heat of water, bodies of water moderate climate of land nearby
        
        California coast climate is regulated by Pacific Ocean
      - Mountains
        
        Windward side - warm., moist air cools and releases moisture (rains)
        
        Leeward side - cooler, dry air descends and absorbs moisture, causing rain shadows
        
        Leewawrd rain shadows determine where deserts are found
        
        Affects sunlight reaching an area, thus local temperature and climate
        
        Leeward rain shadows = Mojave Desert in N. America and Gobi Desert in Asia
      - Seasonality
        
        Earth's tilt at axis and revolution about the sun causes seasonal changes
        
        Affects: Day length, solar radiation, and temperature
        
        Coriolis Effect
    - - Intense sunlight in tropics initiates air circulation
      - High temperatures cause warm, wet air to rise and flow towards poles
      - High-altitude air (dry) descends towards 30 degrees N and S - absorbs moisture causing arid climates
      - ^^^Causes deserts (not the delicious kind) common at those latitudes
      - Cold, dry air flows to poles and descends towards equator (dry and cold weather)
      - Wind patterns: cooling trade winds blow E to W, prevailing westerlies blow W to E
    - - Very fine, localized climate patterns
      - Casting shade
      - Altering evaporation from soil
      - Changing wind patterns
    - - Causes sunlight to hit different part of Earth at different angles
      - More sunlight hits towards equator
      - Closer to opposite poles, sunlight becomes more diffused
      - Tropics - region lies b/w 23.5 degrees N and 23.5 degrees S
      - Tropics have more heat and light per unit of surface area
      - Light hits tropics/equator more directly than at poles
  - - - Precipitation: highly seasonal- rainy winters and dry summers. Avg rainfall: 30-50cm
      - Temp: Fall, winter, spring - avg 10C-12C summer: avg 30C and >40C
      - Locations: Midlatitude coastal reggions
      - Plants: shrubs, small trees, various grasses and herbs. Adaptations to drought and fire
      - Animals: Browsers (deer and goat) and variety of small mammals, amphibians, birds, reptiles, and insects
      - Areas in California
    - - Temp: cold winters avg <-10C summers avg. approaching 30C
      - Plants: grasses and forbs, adaptations to droughts and fire
      - Precipitation: highly seasonal, dry winters and wet summers. Avg. annual rain: 30-100cm
      - Animals: large grazers (bison and wild horses) and burrowing mammals
      - Location: S. Africa, Hungary, Argentina, Uruguay, Russia, and plans and prairies of central N. America
      - Grasslands in Mongolia and in Central US
    - - Plants: scattered trees, often thorny and small leaves, fire-adapted and tolerant of drought, grasses, forbs
      - Animals: large plant-eating mammals (zebra, wildebeests), predators (lions, hyenas), insects (esp. termites)
      - Temp: warm year-round, avg 24C-29C, varies more than tropical forests
      - Precipitation: avg. 30-50cm, dry season lasts up to 8-9 months
      - Locations: Equatorial and subequatorial
      - Savanna in Kenya
    - - Temp: cold winters, hot summers ; areas in Siberia range from -50C->20C
      - Plants: cone-bearing trees (pine, spruce, fir, and hemlock), diverse shrub and herb layers
      - Precipitation: annual avg: 30-70cm with periodic droughts, some may get >300cm of pcp
      - Animals: migratory birds, diverse mammals (moose, brown bears, and Siberian tigers), and periodic outbreaks of insects
      - Locations: broad band across northern N. America and Eurasia to edge of arctic tundra (largest biome on Earth)
      - Coniferous forests in Norway, upper N. America, and across Russia
    - - Precipitation: low and highly variable, <30cm
      - Temp: Varies seasonally and daily, max: >50C and may fall below -30C
      - Locations: In bands (rockin') near 30D N and S latitudes or in interior of continents
      - Plants: succulents, deeply rooted shrubs, and herbs
      - Animals: snakes, lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, birds, and seed-eating rodents (mainly nocturnal)
      - Sahara and Gobi Desert
    - - Plants: distinct vertical layers, closed canopy, understory trees, shrubs, and herbs, epiphytes. Deciduous trees and in Australia evergreen eucalyptus trees
      - Temp: winter avg 0C and summers up to 35C, hot and humid
      - Precipitation: avg 70->200cm during all seasons
      - Animals: hibernating mammals, migratory birds, and insects
      - Locations: mainly at midlatitudes in N. Hemisphere, small areas in Chile, S. Africa, Australia, and New Zealand
      - TBF in east coast of US
    - - Precipitation: For tropical rain forests: 200-400cm annually For tropical dry forests: 150-200cm annually with 6-7month dry season
      - Temperature: High temps year-round, avg: 25C-29C, little variation
      - Locations: Equatorial and subequatorial regions
      - Dominant Organisms: Tropical Rain Forest - canopy trees, shrubs, and herbs
      - Dominant Organisms: Tropical Dry Forest - thorny shrubs and succulents
      - Amazon Forest
    - - Temp: cold winters, avg >-30C and summers <10C
      - Plants: herbaceous, mosses, grasses, forbs, trees, and lichens
      - Precipitation: annual avg - 20-60cm in arctic tundra, may >100cm in alpine tundra
      - Animals: grazing musk oxen, migratory caribou and reindeer, predators (bears, wolves, foxes) and summer migratory birds
      - Locations: Arctic, very high mountaintops (including tropics)
      - Norway, areas of the Arctic
- - - - Describes population growth in an idealizeed, unlimited environment
      - dN/dt = rN
      - Assuming all individuals have access to abundant food and reproduce to physiological capacity
      - r = intrinsic rate of increase, per capita rate that exp. growing pop. increases in size at each instant in time
      - Graph looks like exponential function
    - - Describes pop. growth as it reaches near carrying capacity
      - K = carrying capacity, max. pop. size that an environment can sustain
      - K varies over space and time due to limited resources and their availability
      - Ex: energy, shelter, safety from predators, availability of nutrients, water, and sustainable habitats
      - dN/dt = rN (K - N)/K
      - Graph: # generations vs. Population size
      - More realistic and applicable to populations
      - Growth of species generally depicts this model Ex: paramecium population in a lab reaches around a certain point
      - Daphnia - population overshot carrying capacity before leveling off to a lower, more stable size
  - - - No change in birth or death rates with population density
      - Mortality of dune fescue grass were due to similar factors that killed similar proportions of a local pop, not due to density
      - Temperature and precipitation
    - - Death rate inc with pop. density or birth rate falls with rising density
      - Reproduction by dune fescue declines as pop. density increases due to increased scarcity of water or nutrients
      - Principle of feedback regulation plays on population
      - Competition for Resources - Ex:Farmers minimize competition among wheat and other crops by applying fertilizer
      - Disease - Ex: Flu spreads more easily in densely populated areas
      - Predation- Ex: Pop inc on collared lemming lead to density-dependent predation of predators (snowy owl)
      - Territoriality- Ex: Cheetahs have chemical markers in urine that warns other of territorial boundaries
      - Intrinsic Factors - Ex: Social Interactions, White-footed mice reproductive rates can decrease even with abundant resources due to aggressive interactions b/w individuals
      - Toxic Wastes - Ex:Yeast produce alcohol (ethanol) anaerobically and its accumulation is toxic to yeast. (Why wine is usually >13%)
  - - - demographic transition - mvmt from high birth and death rates towards area with low rates of both
      - After 1950, death rates declined and also birth rate, China 1970 avg. 5.9 kids/woman and 2011 1.6kids/woman
      - Two conditions for stable pop: high birth rate - high death rate or low birth rate - low death rate
      - A difference can cause a population increase or decrease
      - Age Structure - relativity among age groups, graphed by "pyramids", helps predict growth rates
      - Infant Mortality and Life Expectancy - such rates reflect quality of life and influence reproductive choices of parents
      - Angola - LE: 43yrs in 2011 due to social issues, old infrastructure, and infectious diseases ; LE of Japan, Sweden, Italy, and Spain is double that on Angola
      - Humans can control family sizes due to social values --> delayed reproduction = decrease in pop. growth
    - - Global Carrying Capacity
        
        Limits on Human Pop. Size
        
        Difficult to estimate due to changing abundance of resources
        
        1 hectare = 2.5 acres
        
        Third World Countries - 2.5 acres/person
        
        Developed Countries: 25 acres/person due to higher usage of resources i.e. electricity, fossil fuels, farms, and agriculture
        
        Estimated that each person only needs 1.5 hectares
        
        Estimates of Carrying Capacity
        
        Difficult to determine mathematically since ecological states, abundance of resources, and climate are not constant
        
        Estimates are based off of logistic equation, multiplication, or single limiting factors
    - - Population skyrocketed after the Industrial Revolution
      - Historically, the population grew faster than exponential growth
      - Even with growing populations, the growth rate began to slow around the 1960s
      - Discovery of germs and how to handle them affected death rates, extending lifespan in humans