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Ecology (Population Ecology (Many factors that regulate population growth…

- - - - Innate behavior - Animal behavior that is developmentally fixed and under strong genetic control.
      - Cross- fostering study - A behavioral study in which the young of one species are placed in the care of adults from another species.
      - Twin Study - A behavioral study in which researchers compare the behavior of identical twins raised apart with that of identical twins raised in the same household.
    - - Association Learning
        
        Defined: The acquired ability to to associate one environmental feature with another.
        
        Example: Such as associating color with danger
      - Cognition and Problem Solving
        
        Example: Honeybees can distinguish same and different. -
        
        Problem Solving - The cognitive activity of devising a method to proceed from one state to another in the face of real or apparent obstetrical.
        
        Cognition - The process of knowing that may include awarness, reasoning, recollection, and judgement.
        
        A young chimp can learn how to crack oil palm nuts by observing an experienced elder.
      - Spatial Learning and Cognitive Maps
        
        Spatial Leaning - The establishment of a memory that reflects the environment's spatial structure.
        
        Cognitive Maps - A neutral representation of the abstract spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings.
        
        example - Tinbergen hypothesized that a wasp locates her nest by learning its position relative to visible landmarks.
        
        example - researchers discovered that birds keep track of the half way point between landmarks, rather than fixed distances to find their hidden food storage.
      - Imprinting
        
        Learning - The modification of behavior as a result of different experiences.
        
        Imprinting -The formation at the specific stage in life of a long lasting behavioral response to a specific individual or object.
      - Social Learning
        
        Social Learning - Modification of behavior through the observation of other individuals.
        
        Culture- A system of information transfer through social learning or teaching that influence the behavior of individuals in a population.
  - - - Optimal Foraging Model
        
        Optimal Foraging Model - The basis of analyzing behavior as a compromise between feeding costs and feeding benefits.
        
        Foraging - The seeking and obtaining of food.
      - Balancing Risk and Reward -
    - - Sexual Selection and Mate Choice
        
        Mate-Choice Copying - Behavior in which individuals in a population cope the mate choice of others apparently as a result of social learning.
      - Applying Game Theory
        
        Defined: An approach to evaluating alternative strategies in situations where the outcome of a particular strategy depends on the strategies used by other individuals.
        
        Example:
      - Mating System and Parent Care
      - Mating System and Sexual Dimorphism
        
        Monogamous - referring to a type of relationship in which one male mates with just one female.
        
        Polygamous - referring to the type of relationship in which an individual of one sex mates with several of the other.
  - - - Defined: A regular, long-distance change in location.
      - Example: Wildebeest herbs migrate long distances twice each year, changing their feeding grounds in coordination with the dry and rainy seasons.
    - - Behavioral ecology - The study of the evolution of and ecological basis for animal behavior.
      - Fixed action pattern - In animal behavior, a sequence of unlearned acts that is essentially unchangeable and once initiated, usually carried to completion.
      - Behavior - Individually, an action carried out by muscles or glands under control of the nervous system in response to a stimulus; collectively, the sum of an animal's responses to external and internal stimuli.
      - Sign stimulus - An external sensory cue that triggers a fixed action pattern by an animal.
    - - Forms of Animal Communication
        
        signal - In animal behavior, transmission of a stimulus from one animal to another.
        
        communication - A process involving transmission of, reception of, and response to signals.
      - Pheromones
        
        Defined: A small molecule released into the environment that function as communication between members of the same species.
        
        Example: Fruit fly courtship involves a fixed set pf behaviors that follow one another in a rigid order.
  - - - Defined: Selflessness; behavior that reduces an individual's fitness while increasing the fitness of another individual.
      - Example: A squirrel that sees a predator approach often gives off a high pitched alarm call to alert unaware individuals to retreat to their burrows.
    - - Hamilton's Rule and Kin Selection
        
        Coefficient of relatedness - The fraction of genes that, on average, are shared by two individuals.
        
        Hamilton's Rule - The principle that for natural selection to favor an altruistic act, the benefit to the recipient, devalued by the coefficient of relatedness, must exceed the cost to the altruist.
      - Reciprocal Altrism
        
        Defined: Altruistic behavior between unrelated individuals, whereby the altruistic individual benefits in the future when the beneficiary reciprocates.
        
        Example: Chimpanzees exhibit this behavior
      - Defined:The total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by proving aid that enables other close relatives to increase production of their offspring.
    - - Case Study: Variation in Prey Selection
      - Case Study: Variation in Migratory Patterns
    - - Sociobiology - The study of social behavior based on evolutionary theory.
- - - - Ecotone - The transmission from one type of habitat or ecosystem to another, such as the transition from a forest to a grass land.
      - Canopy - The upmost layer of vegetation in a terrestrial biome.
    - - Disturbances - an event such as a storm, fire or human activity that changes a community, removing organisms from and a altering resource ability.
    - - biomes - major life zones characterized by vegetation type in terrestrial biomes or by the physical environment in aquatic biomes.
      - climography - a plot of the annule mean temperature and predipitaion in a particular region.
  - - - Bodies of Water
      - Mountains
      - Seasonality
    - - Biotic - living factors
      - Example- orgnaisms
      - Example - temperature, light, water, nutrients.
      - Abiotic - nonliving factors
    - - Ecosystem - the community of organisms in an area and the physical factors with which those organisms interact.
      - Ecosystem ecology - emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling between organisms and the environment.
      - Landscape ecology - focuses on the factors controlling exchange energy, materials, and organisms, across multiple ecosystems.
      - Community - a group of populations of different species in an area.
      - Landscape - is a mosaic of connected ecosystems.
      - Community ecology - examines how species interact such as predation and competition, affect the community structure and organization.
      - Global ecology - examines how the regional exchange of energy and materials influences the functioning and distribution of organisms across the biosphere.
      - population - a group of individuals of the same species living in an area.
      - Biosphere- the global ecosystem. The sum of all the planet's ecosystem and landscape.
      - Population ecology - analyzing factors that affect population size and how and why it changes through time.
      - Tropics - Latitudes between 23.5 north and south.
      - Organismal ecology- includes the subdisclines of physiological, evolutionary, and behavioral ecology, is concerned with how an organism's structure, physiology, and behavior meet challenges posed by the environment.
  - - - Temperature - Fall, winter and spring are cool with temperatures between 10 - 12 degrees celsius. Average summer temperatures are around 30 degrees celsius.
      - Plants - Dominated by small trees and shrubs and have many variations of grasses and herbs.
      - Precipitation - Highly seasonal. Annual rain generally falls within the range of 30-50 cm.
      - Animals - Deer goats, and high diversity of small animals. Chaparral areas can also support many species of amphibians. reptiles, insects, and birds.
      - Distribution - Midlatitude coastal regions on several continents.
      - Human Impact - Humans contribute to fires that sweep across the chaparral.
    - - Temperature - Winters of around -10 degrees celsius and summers of around 30 degrees celsius.
      - Plants- Dominant plants are grasses and forbs. These plants are adapted to fires and droughts. Large grazing mammals prevent the establishment of large woody plants.
      - Precipitation - Highly seasonal. Dry winters, wet summers. Annual rainfall between 30 - 100 cm.
      - Animals - Bison, wild horses, prairie dogs.
      - Distribution - Example) prairies and plains of central north america.
      - Human Impact - Converted into farmland. Cattle and other grazers have converted parts of the biome into deserts.
    - - Temperature - Warm year around. Averages 24 - 29 degrees celsius. Some seasonal variation.
      - Plants - Scattered trees that are often thorny and have small leaves. Ground covered in forbs. Fires are common during dry season.
      - Precipitation - 30 to 50 cm per year. Dry season can last up to eight months.
      - Animals - Large plant eating animals, lions,, hyenas, insects such as termites.
      - Distribution - Equatorial and subequatorial regions.
      - Human Impact - Cattle ranching and overhunting have led to decline in large - mammal populations.
    - - Temperature - Winters are usually cold, summers may be hot. Can be -50 degrees celsius during the winter and 20 degrees celsius during the summer.
      - Plants - Dominated by cone bearing trees, such as pine, spruce, fir, hemlock. Some are fire resistant.
      - Precipitation - Generally 30 to 70 cm of rain a year and periods of drought are common. Some of these forest can receive more than 300 cm of rain a year though.
      - Animals - Moose, brown bears, tigers, Outbreaks in insects can kill many species of tress.
      - Distribution - Expanding in a broad band across northern america and euasia to the edge of the arctic tundra.
      - Human Impact- Humans are logging these forests at an alarming rate. These could soon disappear.
    - - Temperature - Vary seasonally and daily. Hot deserts can exceed temperatures higher than 50 degrees Celsius and cold deserts may fall below -30 degrees celsius.
      - Plants - Low widely scattered vegetation. Plants include cacti, deeply rooted shrubs, herbs, These plants adaptions include heat and dessication, water storage, and reduced leaf surface area.
      - Precipitation - - generally less than 30 cm per year.
      - Animals - Snakes, lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, birds and rodents.
      - Distribution - occur in bands near 300 degrees north and south latitude or at other latitudes in the interior of continents.
      - Human Impact - Irrigated agriculture have reduced the natural biodiversity of some deserts.
    - - Temperature - Winters average 0 degress celsius and summers average 35 degrees celsius and are hot and humid.
      - Plants- Closed conopy, shubs, and herbs. Dominate plants are deciduous trees.
      - Precipitation - Can average 70 to over 200 cm annually.
      - Animals - Many mammals hibernate in the winter. These forests are filled with mammals, birds and insects.
      - Distribution - Found many in midlatitudes in the northern hemisphere.
      - Human Impact - Logging and land clearing for agriculture and urban development cleared virtually a;; the original deciduous forests in north america. They are recovering though.
    - - Temperature - 25 - 29 degrees Celsius. with little variation.
      - Plants - vertically layered and competition for light is intense. This includes conopy trees, shrubs, herbs,
      - Precipitation - Tropical rain forests have about 200-400 cm annually vs a tropical dry forest has 150 - 200 cm annually.
      - Animals - home to millions of species.This biome has the most diversity than any other biome. Includes birds, reptiles, mammals, insects, arthropods, and anphibians.
      - Distribution - Equatorial and subequatorial regions.
      - Human Impact - rapid population growth leading to agriculture and development is now destroying many tropical forests.
    - - Distribution - Covers expansive areas of the Artic, amounting to 20% of Earth's ;and surface.
      - Precipitation - Averages 20 to 60 cm annually in arctic tundra buy may exceed 10 cm in alpine tundra.
      - Temperature - Winters are cold, with average in some areas below 30 degrees celsius. Summers are generally less than 10 degrees celsius.
      - Plants- Herbaceous, mixed with mosses, grasses, and forbs.
      - Animals - - Musk oxen, caribou and reindeer, bears, wolves, foxes, birds, Caribou, reindeer and birds are seasonal.
      - Human Impact - Significant mineral and oil extraction in recent years.
  - - - Photosynthetic Organisms - Saltmarsh grasses and algae, including phytoplankton, are the major producers.
      - Heterotrophs - Worms, oysters, crabs, and fish that humans consume.
      - Geologic Features - Estaurine flow patterns combine with the sediments carried by river and tidal waters create a complex network of tidal channels, inslands, natural levees, and mudflats.
      - Human Impact - Filling, dredging, and pollution from upsteam have disrupted estuaries worldwide.
      - Chemical Environment - Salinity varies spatially within estuaries, from nearly that of fresh water to that of seawater.
      - Physical Environment - Estuary is a transition area between river and sea. Seawater flows up the estuary channel during a rising tide and flows back down during the falling tide.
    - - Photosynthetic Organisms - A high diversity and biomass of attached marine algae inhabit rocky intertidal zones, especially in the lower zone. Sandy intertidal zones expose to vigorous wave action generally lack attached plants or algae.
      - Heterotrophs - Animals in the rocky areas adapted to being able to stick to hard areas. Animals in sandy zones such as worms and clams, bury themselves in the sand.
      - Chemical Environment - Oxygen and nutrient levels are generally high and are renewed with each turn of the tides.
      - Human Impact - Oil pollution and construction disrupt habitat.
      - Physical Environment - Periodically submerged and exposed by tides, twice daily on most marine shores. Changes in physical conditions from the upper to lower intertidal zones limit the distribution of many organisms to particular strata.
    - - Geologic Features - Headwater stream channels are often narrow, have a rocky bottom, and alternate between shallow sections and deeper pools. Downstream stretches of river are generally wide and meandering.
      - Photosynthetic Organisms - Headwater streams that flow though grasslands or deserts may be rich in photoplankton or rooted aquatic plants.
      - Chemical Environment - The salt and nutrient content of streams and rovers increase from the headwaters to the mouth. Headwaters are oxygen rich.
      - Heterotrophs - Great diversity of fish and invertebrates.
      - Physical Environment - Headwater streams are generally cold, clear, turbulent, and swift. Downstream, water is generally warmer and more turbid.
      - Human Impact - Municipal, agricultural, and industrial pollution degraded water quality and kill aquatic organisms.
    - - Geologic Features - This biome covers 70% of the Earth's surface. It's very deep.
      - Photosynthetic Organisms - Photoplankton.
      - Chemical Environment - Oxygen levels are generally high. Nutrient concentrations are generally lower than coastal waters.
      - Heterotrophs - Prostist, worms, copepods, shrimp like krill, jelleis, small larvae large squids, fishes, sea turtles, and marine mammals.
      - Physical Environment - a vast realm of open blue water, constantly mixed by wind driven oceanic currents.
      - Human Impact - Over fishing and dumping wasting in ocean has disrupted it.
    - - Geologic Features - Basin wetlands develop in shallow basins. Riverine wetlands develop along shallow and periodically flooded banks of rivers and streams. Fringe wetlands occure along the coasts of large lakes and seas where water flows back and forth.
      - Photosynthetic Organisms - Favor the growth of floating lillies, cattails, sedges, bald cypress and black spruces. Woody plants dominate the vegetation of swamps while bogs are dominated by sphagnum mosses.
      - Chemical Environment - Because of high organic production by plants and decomposition by microbes and other organisms, both the water and soils are periodically low in dissolved oxygen.
      - Heterotrophes - Invertebrates, birds, crustaceans, aquatic insects, muskrats, dragonflies, otters, frogs, alligators, herons.
      - Physical Environment - A wetland is a habitat that is inundated by water at least some of the time and that supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil.
      - Human Impact- Draining and filling has destroyed up to 90% of wetlands.
    - - Geological Features - Coral require a solid substrate for attachment. A typical coral reef begins as a fringing reef on a young, high island. forming an offshore barrier reef later in the history of the island and becoming a coral atoll as the older island submerges.
      - Photosynthetic Organisms - Algae live in the tissue of corals which provide them with organic molecules.
      - Chemical Environment - Corals require high oxygen levels and are excluded by high oxygen levels and are exclused by high input of fresh water and nutrients.
      - Heterotrophs - Corals, are a diverse group themselves high. the predominant animal on coral reefs. Fish and invertebrates eptionaldiversity is ex
      - Physical Environment - formed largley from the calcium carbonate skeleton of corals.
      - Human Impact - Collecting coral skeletons and overfhishing hav ereduced populations of coral anf reef fish.
    - - Geologic Features - Oligotrophic lakes may become more eutrophic over time. They tend to have less surface area relative to their depth than eutrophic lakes.
      - Photosynthetic Organisms - Rooted and floating aquatic plants live in the littoral zone. Limnetic zone supports phytoplankton and cyanobacteria.
      - Chemical Environment - The salinity, oxygen concentration, and nutrient content differ greatly among lakes and can vary with season. Oligotrophic lakes are nutrient poor and generally oxygen - rich. Eutrophic lakes are nutrient rich and oxygen poor.
      - Heterotrophs Limnetic zone has small drifting heterotrophic, or zooplankton, graze on phytoplanton. Fish live in all zones that are oxygen rich.
      - Physical Environment Standing bodies of water range from ponds a few square meters in area to lakes covering thousands of square kilometers. Light decreases with depth.
      - Human Impact - Runoff from fertilized land and dumping of wastes lead to nutrient enrichment, which can produce algal blooms, oxygen depletion, and fish kills.
    - - Geological Features - Soft sediment cover most of the benthic zone. There are also areas of rocky substrate on reefs, substrate on the reefs, submarine mountains, and new ocean crust.
      - Autotrophs - Photosynthetic organisms, mainly seaweeds and filamentous algae with sufficient light to support them.
      - Chemical Environment - Except in areas of organic enrichment, oxygen is usually present at sufficient concentration to support diverse animal life.
      - Heterotrophs - Nertic benefit communities include numerous invertebrates and fishes. Beyond the photic zone, most consumers depend entirely on organic matter raining down from above.
      - *Physical Environment **- consists of the seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal zone and the offshore, pelagic zone. Water temperature decrease with depth and pressure increase.
      - Human impact - Over fishing and dumping waste in these areas as messed with the environment.
- - - - Carrying capacity - the maximum population size a particular environment can sustain.
      - logistic population growth - the per capita rate increase approaches zero as the population size nears the carrying capacity.
  - - - Life history - the traits that affect an organism's schedual of reproduction and survival.
      - Semelparity - one shot pattern of big bang reproduction.
      - Iteropairty- repeated production
    - - K-selection - selection for traits that are sensitive to population density and are favored at high densities
      - r- selection - selection for traits that maximize reproductive success in uncrowded environments.
  - - - Zero population growth - occurs when the per capita birth and death rates are equal.
    - - Exponential population growth - occurs when r is greater than zero and is constant at each instant in time.
  - - - Predation - Predation can be important cause of density-dependent mortality if a predator captures more food as the population density of the prey increases.
      - Territoriality - Territorality can limit population density when sources becomes the for which individuals resource for which individuals compete.
      - Disease - If the termination rate of disease increase as population becomes more crowed, then the disease's impact is density dependent.
      - Intrinsic Factors - Intrinsic physiological facotors can reguale population size.
      - Competition for Resources - Increasing population density intensifies competition for nutrients and other resources, reducing reproductive rates.
    - - Population Cycles: Scientific Inquiry
      - Immigration, Emigration, and Metapopulations
        
        Meta-population - immigration and emigration are particularly important when a number of local populations are linked.
      - Stability and Fluctuation
        
        Population dynamics - are influence by many factors and in turn affect other species.
    - - Density independent - a birth rate or death rate that does not change with population density.
      - Density dependent - A death rate that increases with density or a birth rate that falls with rising density.
  - - - Density: a Dynamic Perspective
        
        Mark-recapture method - A sampling technique used to estimate the size of an animal population.
        
        Immigration - The influx of new individuals from another area.
        
        Dispersion - the pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population.
        
        Territoriality - the defense of a bounded physical space against encroachment by other individuals.
        
        Population - a group of individuals of a single species living in the same general area.
      - Demographics-
        
        Cohort - a group of individuals of the same age, from birth until all of the individuals are dead.
        
        Survivalship curve - a plot of the proportion or numbers in a cohort still alive at each age.
        
        Life tables - age specific summaries of the survival pattern of a population.
        
        Reproductive table - an age specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population.
        
        Demography - the study of the critical statistics of populations and how they change over time.
  - - - Age Structure - the relative number of individuals of each age in the population.
      - Infant Mortality and Life Expectancy
      - Regional Patterns of population change
        
        Demographic transition - - The movement of high birth and death rates toward low birth and death rates which tends to accompany industrialization and improve living conditions.
    - - Estimates of Carrying Capacity
      - Limits on Human Population Size
        
        Ecological footprint - summarizes the aggregate land and water area required by a person, city, or nation to produce all the resources it consumes and absorbs all the waste it generates.